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<title>Climate change mitigation</title>

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Climate change mitigation

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about reducing greenhouse gas emissions or removing greenhouse gases from the atmosphere. For other topics, see <a href="Solar_radiation_modification" title="Solar radiation modification">Solar radiation modification</a>, <a href="Climate_movement" title="Climate movement">Climate movement</a>, and <a href="Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Climate change adaptation</a>.</div>

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</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:203px;max-width:203px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:120px;overflow:hidden"></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:185px;max-width:185px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:120px;overflow:hidden"></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:213px;max-width:213px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:120px;overflow:hidden"></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:175px;max-width:175px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:120px;overflow:hidden"></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Various aspects of climate change mitigation: <a href="Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a> (<a href="Solar_power" title="Solar power">solar</a> and <a href="Wind_power" title="Wind power">wind power</a>) in England, electrified <a href="Public_transport_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Public transport in France">public transport in France</a>, a <a href="Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a> project in <a href="Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a> to <a href="Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere</a>, and an example of a <a href="Plant-based_diet" title="Plant-based diet">plant-based meal</a></div></div></div></div>

Climate change mitigation (or decarbonisation) is action to limit the <a href="Greenhouse_gases" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenhouse gases">greenhouse gases</a> in the atmosphere that cause <a href="Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>. Climate change mitigation actions include <a href="Energy_conservation" title="Energy conservation">conserving energy</a> and <a href="Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">replacing fossil fuels</a> with <a href="Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">clean energy sources</a>. Secondary mitigation strategies include changes to land use and <a href="Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">removing carbon dioxide (CO2)</a> from the atmosphere.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Current climate change mitigation policies are insufficient as they would still result in global warming of about 2.7 °C by 2100,<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> significantly above the 2015 <a href="Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a>'s<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> goal of limiting global warming to below 2 °C.<a href="#cite_note-theguardian.com-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-United_Nations-6">[6]</a>

<a href="Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">Solar energy</a> and <a href="Wind_power" title="Wind power">wind power</a> can replace fossil fuels at the lowest cost compared to other <a href="Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy</a> options.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_13-7">[7]</a> The availability of sunshine and wind is variable and can require <a href="Electrical_grid" title="Electrical grid">electrical grid</a> upgrades, such as using <a href="Super_grid" title="Super grid">long-distance electricity transmission</a> to group a range of power sources.<a href="#cite_note-Ram-2019-8">[8]</a> <a href="Energy_storage" title="Energy storage">Energy storage</a> can also be used to even out power output, and <a href="Energy_demand_management" title="Energy demand management">demand management</a> can limit power use when power generation is low. Cleanly generated <a href="Electrification" title="Electrification">electricity can usually replace fossil fuels</a> for powering transportation, heating buildings, and running industrial processes.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Certain processes are more difficult to decarbonise, such as <a href="Environmental_effects_of_aviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of aviation">air travel</a> and <a href="Cement" title="Cement">cement production</a>. <a href="Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">Carbon capture and storage</a> (CCS) can be an option to reduce net emissions in these circumstances, although fossil fuel power plants with CCS technology is currently a high-cost climate change mitigation strategy.<a href="#cite_note-IEA-2022-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a>

Human land use changes such as <a href="Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture">agriculture</a> and deforestation cause about 1/4th of climate change. These changes impact how much CO2 is absorbed by plant matter and how much organic matter decays or burns to release CO2. These changes are part of the fast <a href="Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">carbon cycle</a>, whereas fossil fuels release CO2 that was buried underground as part of the slow carbon cycle. <a href="Methane" title="Methane">Methane</a> is a short-lived greenhouse gas that is produced by decaying organic matter and livestock, as well as fossil fuel extraction. Land use changes can also impact precipitation patterns and the <a href="Albedo" title="Albedo">reflectivity of the surface of the Earth</a>. It is possible to cut emissions from agriculture by reducing <a href="Food_loss_and_waste" title="Food loss and waste">food waste</a>, switching to a more <a href="Plant-based_diet" title="Plant-based diet">plant-based diet</a> (also referred to as <a href="Low-carbon_diet" title="Low-carbon diet">low-carbon diet</a>), and by improving farming processes.<a href="#cite_note-UNEP-2022-13">[13]</a>

Various policies can encourage climate change mitigation. <a href="Carbon_price" title="Carbon price">Carbon pricing</a> systems have been set up that either <a href="Carbon_tax" title="Carbon tax">tax CO2 emissions</a> or <a href="Carbon_emission_trading" title="Carbon emission trading">cap total emissions and trade emission credits</a>. <a href="Fossil_fuel_subsidies" title="Fossil fuel subsidies">Fossil fuel subsidies</a> can be eliminated in favour of clean <a href="Energy_subsidy" title="Energy subsidy">energy subsidies</a>, and incentives offered for installing energy efficiency measures or switching to electric power sources.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Another issue is overcoming environmental objections when constructing new clean energy sources and making grid modifications. Limiting climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions or removing greenhouse gases from the atmosphere could be supplemented by climate technologies such as <a href="Solar_radiation_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar radiation management">solar radiation management</a> (or solar geoengineering). Complementary <a href="Climate_change_action" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change action">climate change actions</a>, including <a href="Climate_activism" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate activism">climate activism</a>, have a focus on political and cultural aspects.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions_and_scope">Definitions and scope</h2></div>

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</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above hlist">

<ul><li><a href="Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></li>

<li><a href="Co-benefits_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-benefits of climate change mitigation">Co-benefits of mitigation</a></li>

<li><a href="Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#EEF7F1; border-top:1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaaaaa; padding:0 5px 0 5px;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Climate_and_energy" title="Climate and energy">Energy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">Carbon capture and storage</a></li>

<li><a href="Coal_phase-out" title="Coal phase-out">Coal phase-out</a></li>

<li><a href="Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">Energy transition</a></li>

<li><a href="Fossil_fuel_divestment" title="Fossil fuel divestment">Fossil fuel divestment</a></li>

<li><a href="Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">Fossil fuel phase-out</a></li>

<li><a href="Phase-out_of_fossil_fuel_vehicles" title="Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles">Fossil fuel vehicles</a></li>

<li><a href="Low-carbon_electricity" title="Low-carbon electricity">Low-carbon electricity</a></li>

<li><a href="Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a></li>

<li><a href="Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li>

<li><a href="Solar_power" title="Solar power">Solar power</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy</a></li>

<li><a href="Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind power</a></li>

<li><a href="World_energy_supply_and_consumption" title="World energy supply and consumption">World energy supply and consumption</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#EEF7F1; border-top:1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaaaaa; padding:0 5px 0 5px;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Economics_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Economics of climate change mitigation">Economics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Building_insulation" title="Building insulation">Building insulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">Carbon offsets and credits</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_tax" title="Carbon tax">Carbon tax</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_debt" title="Climate debt">Climate debt</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_finance" title="Climate finance">Climate finance</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_risk_insurance" title="Climate risk insurance">Climate risk insurance</a></li>

<li><a href="Eco-capitalism" title="Eco-capitalism">Eco-capitalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economic analysis of climate change</a></li>

<li><a href="Economics_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Economics of climate change mitigation">Economics of climate change mitigation</a></li>

<li><a href="Emissions_trading" title="Emissions trading">Emissions trading</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_accounting" title="Environmental accounting">Environmental accounting</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_design" title="Environmental design">Environmental design</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_full-cost_accounting" title="Environmental full-cost accounting">Environmental full-cost accounting</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_impact_design" title="Environmental impact design">Environmental impact design</a></li>

<li><a href="Fossil_fuel_divestment" title="Fossil fuel divestment">Fossil fuel divestment</a></li>

<li><a href="Green_building" title="Green building">Green building</a></li>

<li><a href="Green_home" title="Green home">Green home</a></li>

<li><a href="High-performance_buildings" title="High-performance buildings">High-performance buildings</a></li>

<li><a href="Impact_investing" title="Impact investing">Impact investing</a></li>

<li><a href="Low-carbon_economy" title="Low-carbon economy">Low-carbon economy</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_interest_design" title="Public interest design">Public interest design</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a>

<ul><li><a href="Sustainable_agriculture" title="Sustainable agriculture">Agriculture</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_business" title="Sustainable business">Business</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_capitalism" title="Sustainable capitalism">Capitalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_transport" title="Sustainable transport">Transport</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Verified_Carbon_Standard" title="Verified Carbon Standard">Verified Carbon Standard</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#EEF7F1; border-top:1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaaaaa; padding:0 5px 0 5px;;color: var(--color-base)">Frameworks and treaties</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Business_ethics" title="Business ethics">Business ethics</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_litigation" title="Climate change litigation">Climate change litigation</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethical_banking" title="Ethical banking">Ethical banking</a></li>

<li><a href="Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_responsibility" title="Social responsibility">Social responsibility</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainability_accounting" title="Sustainability accounting">Sustainability accounting</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainability_reporting" title="Sustainability reporting">Sustainability reporting</a></li>

<li><a href="United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">UNFCCC</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#EEF7F1; border-top:1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaaaaa; padding:0 5px 0 5px;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Carbon_sinks" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon sinks">Carbon sinks</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">Blue carbon</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">Carbon dioxide removal</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration</a></li>

<li><a href="Direct_air_capture" title="Direct air capture">Direct air capture</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate-smart_agriculture" title="Climate-smart agriculture">Climate-smart agriculture</a></li>

<li><a href="Land_use%2C_land-use_change%2C_and_forestry" title="Land use, land-use change, and forestry">Land use, land-use change, and forestry</a></li>

<li><a href="Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li>

<li><a href="Reforestation" title="Reforestation">Reforestation</a></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">

<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#EEF7F1; border-top:1px solid #aaaaaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaaaaa; padding:0 5px 0 5px;;color: var(--color-base)">Related content</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">

<ul><li><a href="Climate_action" title="Climate action">Climate action</a></li>

<li><a href="Conscious_business" title="Conscious business">Conscious business</a></li>

<li><a href="Corporate_social_responsibility" title="Corporate social responsibility">Corporate social responsibility</a></li>

<li><a href="Corporate_sustainability" title="Corporate sustainability">Corporate sustainability</a></li>

<li><a href="Disinvestment" title="Disinvestment">Disinvestment</a></li>

<li><a href="Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects of climate change</a></li>

<li><a href="Energy_conservation" title="Energy conservation">Energy conservation</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethical_consumerism" title="Ethical consumerism">Ethical consumerism</a></li>

<li><a href="Socially_responsible_business" title="Socially responsible business">Socially responsible business</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainability_organization" title="Sustainability organization">Sustainability organization</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainable</a>

<ul><li><a href="Sustainable_consumer_behaviour" title="Sustainable consumer behaviour">Consumer behaviour</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_living" title="Sustainable living">Living</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_tourism" title="Sustainable tourism">Tourism</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td>

</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below">

<ul><li> <a href="Portal%3AClimate_change" title="Portal:Climate change">Portal</a></li>

<li> <a href="Glossary_of_climate_change" title="Glossary of climate change">Glossary</a></li>

<li> <a href="Index_of_climate_change_articles" title="Index of climate change articles">Index</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">

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Climate change mitigation aims to sustain <a href="Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a> to maintain <a href="Human_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Human civilisation">human civilisation</a>. This requires drastic cuts in greenhouse gas emissions.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_1-15">[15]</a>: 1–64 The <a href="Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change</a> (IPCC) defines mitigation (of climate change) as "a human intervention to reduce <a href="Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">emissions</a> or enhance the <a href="Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">sinks</a> of <a href="Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gases</a>".<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WGI_Glossary-16">[16]</a>: 2239

It is possible to approach various mitigation measures in parallel. This is because there is no single pathway to limit global warming to 1.5 or 2 °C.<a href="#cite_note-Rogelj-2018-17">[17]</a>: 109 There are four types of measures:

<ol><li><a href="Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy</a> and <a href="Sustainable_transport" title="Sustainable transport">sustainable transport</a></li>

<li><a href="Energy_conservation" title="Energy conservation">Energy conservation</a>, including <a href="Efficient_energy_use" title="Efficient energy use">efficient energy use</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_agriculture" title="Sustainable agriculture">Sustainable agriculture</a> and <a href="Green_industrial_policy" title="Green industrial policy">green industrial policy</a></li>

<li>Enhancing <a href="Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sinks</a> and <a href="Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">carbon dioxide removal</a> (CDR), including <a href="Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a></li></ol>

The IPCC defined carbon dioxide removal as "Anthropogenic activities removing carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere and durably storing it in geological, terrestrial, or ocean reservoirs, or in products. It includes existing and potential anthropogenic enhancement of biological or geochemical CO2 sinks and <a href="Direct_air_carbon_capture_and_storage" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct air carbon capture and storage">direct air carbon dioxide capture and storage</a> (DACCS) but excludes natural CO2 uptake not directly caused by human activities."<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WGI_Glossary-16">[16]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Emission_trends_and_pledges">Emission trends and pledges</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a></div>

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<div class="smooth-pie-legend-container"><div class="smooth-pie-caption">GHG emissions 2020 by gas type without land-use change using 100 year GWP Total: 49.8 GtCO2e<a href="#cite_note-Olivier_2022-18">[18]</a>: 5 </div>

<li>CO2 mostly by fossil fuel (72.0%)</li>

<li>CH4 methane (19.0%)</li>

<li>N 2O nitrous oxide (6.00%)</li>

<li>Fluorinated gases (3.00%)</li>

</ol>

</div>

</div></div></div>

<div class="smooth-pie-legend-container"><div class="smooth-pie-caption">CO2 emissions by fuel type<a href="#cite_note-Global_Carbon_Budget_2020-19">[19]</a></div>

<li>cement (4.00%)</li>

<li>others (1.50%)</li>

</ol>

</div>

</div></div></div>

Greenhouse gas emissions from human activities strengthen the <a href="Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">greenhouse effect</a>. This contributes to <a href="Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>. Most is <a href="Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> from burning <a href="Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuels</a>: coal, oil, and natural gas. Human-caused emissions have increased atmospheric carbon dioxide by about 50% over pre-industrial levels. Emissions in the 2010s averaged a record 56 billion tons (Gt) a year.<a href="#cite_note-ipccar6wg3ch2-20">[20]</a> In 2016, energy for electricity, heat and transport was responsible for 73.2% of GHG emissions. Direct industrial processes accounted for 5.2%, waste for 3.2% and agriculture, forestry and land use for 18.4%.<a href="#cite_note-OWiD-2022-21">[21]</a>

Electricity generation and transport are major emitters. The largest single source is <a href="Coal-fired_power_station" title="Coal-fired power station">coal-fired power stations</a> with 20% of greenhouse gas emissions.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> <a href="Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a> and other changes in land use also emit carbon dioxide and methane. The largest sources of anthropogenic methane emissions are <a href="Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture">agriculture</a>, and <a href="Gas_venting" title="Gas venting">gas venting</a> and <a href="Fugitive_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Fugitive emissions">fugitive emissions</a> from the fossil-fuel industry. The largest agricultural methane source is livestock. <a href="Agricultural_soil_science" title="Agricultural soil science">Agricultural soils</a> emit <a href="Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">nitrous oxide</a>, partly due to fertilizers.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> There is now a political solution to the problem of fluorinated gases from <a href="Refrigerant" title="Refrigerant">refrigerants</a>. This is because many countries have ratified the <a href="Kigali_Amendment" title="Kigali Amendment">Kigali Amendment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a>

<a href="Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">Carbon dioxide</a> (CO2) is the dominant emitted greenhouse gas. <a href="Methane" title="Methane">Methane</a> (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1123817410">

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</style>CH4) emissions almost have the same short-term impact.<a href="#cite_note-ch4-vs-co2-25">[25]</a> <a href="Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">Nitrous oxide</a> (N2O) and <a href="Fluorinated_gases" title="Fluorinated gases">fluorinated gases</a> (F-Gases) play a minor role. Livestock and manure produce 5.8% of all greenhouse gas emissions.<a href="#cite_note-OWiD-2022-21">[21]</a> But this depends on the time frame used to calculate the <a href="Global_warming_potential" title="Global warming potential">global warming potential</a> of the respective gas.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a>

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are measured in <a href="Global_warming_potential#Carbon_dioxide_equivalent" title="Global warming potential">CO2 equivalents</a>. Scientists determine their CO2 equivalents from their <a href="Global_warming_potential" title="Global warming potential">global warming potential</a> (GWP). This depends on their lifetime in the atmosphere. There are widely used <a href="Carbon_accounting" title="Carbon accounting">greenhouse gas accounting</a> methods that convert volumes of methane, nitrous oxide and other greenhouse gases to <a href="Global_warming_potential#Carbon_dioxide_equivalent" title="Global warming potential">carbon dioxide equivalents</a>. Estimates largely depend on the ability of oceans and land sinks to absorb these gases. <a href="Short-lived_climate_pollutants" class="mw-redirect" title="Short-lived climate pollutants">Short-lived climate pollutants</a> (SLCPs) persist in the atmosphere for a period ranging from days to 15 years. Carbon dioxide can remain in the atmosphere for millennia.<a href="#cite_note-IGSD-2013-28">[28]</a> Short-lived climate pollutants include <a href="Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>, <a href="Hydrofluorocarbon" title="Hydrofluorocarbon">hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)</a>, <a href="Tropospheric_ozone" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropospheric ozone">tropospheric ozone</a> and <a href="Black_carbon" title="Black carbon">black carbon</a>.

Scientists increasingly use satellites to locate and measure greenhouse gas emissions and deforestation. Earlier, scientists largely relied on or calculated estimates of greenhouse gas emissions and governments' self-reported data.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Needed_emissions_cuts">Needed emissions cuts</h3></div>

The annual "Emissions Gap Report" by <a href="United_Nations_Environment_Programme" title="United Nations Environment Programme">UNEP</a> stated in 2022 that it was necessary to almost halve emissions. "To get on track for limiting global warming to 1.5°C, global annual GHG emissions must be reduced by 45 per cent compared with emissions projections under policies currently in place in just eight years, and they must continue to decline rapidly after 2030, to avoid exhausting the limited remaining atmospheric <a href="Carbon_budget" title="Carbon budget">carbon budget</a>."<a href="#cite_note-UNEP-2022-13">[13]</a>: xvi The report commented that the world should focus on broad-based economy-wide transformations and not incremental change.<a href="#cite_note-UNEP-2022-13">[13]</a>: xvi

In 2022, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) released its <a href="IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">Sixth Assessment Report</a> on climate change. It warned that greenhouse gas emissions must peak before 2025 at the latest and decline 43% by 2030 to have a good chance of limiting global warming to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F).<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Or in the words of Secretary-General of the United Nations <a href="Ant%C3%B3nio_Guterres" title="António Guterres">António Guterres</a>: "Main emitters must drastically cut emissions starting this year".<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a>

A 2023 synthesis by leading climate scientists highlighted ten critical areas in climate science with significant policy implications. These include the near inevitability of temporarily exceeding the 1.5 °C warming limit, the urgent need for a rapid and managed fossil fuel phase-out, challenges in scaling carbon dioxide removal technologies, uncertainties regarding the future contribution of natural carbon sinks, and the interconnected crises of biodiversity loss and climate change. These insights underscore the necessity for immediate and comprehensive mitigation strategies to address the multifaceted challenges of climate change.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pledges">Pledges</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Climate_target" title="Climate target">Climate target</a></div>

<a href="Climate_Action_Tracker" title="Climate Action Tracker">Climate Action Tracker</a> described the situation on 9 November 2021 as follows. The global temperature will rise by 2.7 °C by the end of the century with current policies and by 2.9 °C with nationally adopted policies. The temperature will rise by 2.4 °C if countries only implement the pledges for 2030. The rise would be 2.1 °C with the achievement of the long-term targets too. Full achievement of all announced targets would mean the rise in global temperature will peak at 1.9 °C and go down to 1.8 °C by the year 2100.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Experts gather information about climate pledges in the <a href="Global_Climate_Action_Portal_-_Nazca" class="mw-redirect" title="Global Climate Action Portal - Nazca">Global Climate Action Portal - Nazca</a>. The scientific community is checking their fulfilment.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a>

There has not been a definitive or detailed evaluation of most goals set for 2020. But it appears the world failed to meet most or all international goals set for that year.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a>

One update came during the <a href="2021_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference" title="2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference">2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference</a> in Glasgow. The group of researchers running the Climate Action Tracker looked at countries responsible for 85% of greenhouse gas emissions. It found that only four countries or political entities—the EU, UK, Chile and Costa Rica—have published a detailed official policy‑plan that describes the steps to realise 2030 mitigation targets. These four polities are responsible for 6% of global greenhouse gas emissions.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a>

In 2021 the US and EU launched the Global Methane Pledge to cut methane emissions by 30% by 2030. The UK, Argentina, Indonesia, Italy and Mexico joined the initiative. Ghana and Iraq signalled interest in joining. A White House summary of the meeting noted those countries represent six of the top 15 methane emitters globally.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Israel also joined the initiative.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Low-carbon_energy">Low-carbon energy</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy</a> and <a href="Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">Energy transition</a></div>

The <a href="Energy_system" title="Energy system">energy system</a> includes the delivery and use of energy. It is the main emitter of carbon dioxide (CO2).<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_6-43">[43]</a>: 6–6 Rapid and deep reductions in the carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions from the energy sector are necessary to limit global warming to well below 2 °C.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_6-43">[43]</a>: 6–3 IPCC recommendations include reducing fossil fuel consumption, increasing production from low- and zero carbon energy sources, and increasing use of electricity and alternative energy carriers.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_6-43">[43]</a>: 6–3

Nearly all scenarios and strategies involve a major increase in the use of renewable energy in combination with increased energy efficiency measures.<a href="#cite_note-Teske-2019-44">[44]</a>: xxiii It will be necessary to accelerate the deployment of <a href="Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energy</a> six-fold from 0.25% annual growth in 2015 to 1.5% to keep global warming under 2 °C.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a>

The competitiveness of renewable energy is a key to a rapid deployment. In 2020, onshore wind and solar photovoltaics were the cheapest source for new bulk electricity generation in many regions.<a href="#cite_note-Bloomberg-47">[47]</a> Renewables may have higher storage costs but non-renewables may have higher clean-up costs.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> A <a href="Carbon_price" title="Carbon price">carbon price</a> can increase the competitiveness of renewable energy.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solar_and_wind_energy">Solar and wind energy</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">Solar energy</a> and <a href="Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind power</a></div>

Wind and sun can provide large amounts of low-carbon energy at competitive production costs.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> The IPCC estimates that these two mitigation options have the largest potential to reduce emissions before 2030 at low cost.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_13-7">[7]</a>: 43

Solar <a href="Photovoltaics" title="Photovoltaics">photovoltaics</a> (PV) has become the cheapest way to generate electricity in many regions of the world.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> The growth of photovoltaics has been close to exponential. It has about doubled every three years since the 1990s.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> A different technology is <a href="Concentrated_solar_power" title="Concentrated solar power">concentrated solar power</a> (CSP). This uses mirrors or lenses to concentrate a large area of sunlight on to a receiver. With CSP, the energy can be stored for a few hours. This provides supply in the evening. <a href="Solar_water_heating" title="Solar water heating">Solar water heating</a> doubled between 2010 and 2019.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a>

Regions in the higher northern and southern latitudes have the greatest potential for wind power.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Offshore <a href="Wind_farms" class="mw-redirect" title="Wind farms">wind farms</a> are more expensive. But offshore units deliver more energy per installed capacity with less fluctuations.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> In most regions, wind power generation is higher in the winter when PV output is low. For this reason, combinations of wind and solar power lead to better-balanced systems.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_renewables">Other renewables</h3></div>

Other well-established renewable energy forms include hydropower, bioenergy and geothermal energy.

<ul><li><a href="Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">Hydroelectricity</a> is electricity generated by <a href="Hydropower" title="Hydropower">hydropower</a> and plays a leading role in countries like Brazil, Norway and China.<a href="#cite_note-BP-59">[59]</a> but there are geographical limits and environmental issues.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> <a href="Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal power</a> can be used in coastal regions.</li>

<li><a href="Bioenergy" title="Bioenergy">Bioenergy</a> can provide energy for electricity, heat and transport. Bioenergy, in particular <a href="Biogas" title="Biogas">biogas</a>, can provide <a href="Dispatchable_generation" title="Dispatchable generation">dispatchable electricity generation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> While burning plant-derived <a href="Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a> releases CO2, the plants withdraw CO2 from the atmosphere while they grow. The technologies for producing, transporting and processing a fuel have a significant impact on the lifecycle emissions of the fuel.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> For example, aviation is starting to use renewable <a href="Biofuel" title="Biofuel">biofuels</a>.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a></li>

<li><a href="Geothermal_power" title="Geothermal power">Geothermal power</a> is electrical power generated from <a href="Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">geothermal energy</a>. Geothermal electricity generation is currently used in 26 countries.<a href="#cite_note-gea2010-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bassam-2013-65">[65]</a> <a href="Geothermal_heating" title="Geothermal heating">Geothermal heating</a> is in use in 70 countries.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_Annex_II-66">[66]</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Integrating_variable_renewable_energy">Integrating variable renewable energy</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Variable_renewable_energy" title="Variable renewable energy">Variable renewable energy</a> and <a href="Energy_storage" title="Energy storage">energy storage</a></div>

Wind and solar power production does not consistently match demand.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> To deliver reliable electricity from <a href="Variable_renewable_energy" title="Variable renewable energy">variable renewable energy</a> sources such as wind and solar, electrical power systems must be flexible.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Most electrical grids were constructed for non-intermittent energy sources such as coal-fired power plants.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> The integration of larger amounts of solar and wind energy into the grid requires a change of the energy system; this is necessary to ensure that the supply of electricity matches demand.<a href="#cite_note-Blanco-2018-71">[71]</a>

There are various ways to make the electricity system more flexible. In many places, wind and solar generation are complementary on a daily and a seasonal scale. There is more wind during the night and in winter when solar energy production is low.<a href="#cite_note-Blanco-2018-71">[71]</a> Linking different geographical regions through <a href="High-voltage_direct_current" title="High-voltage direct current">long-distance transmission lines</a> also makes it possible to reduce variability.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> It is possible to shift energy demand in time. <a href="Energy_demand_management" title="Energy demand management">Energy demand management</a> and the use of <a href="Smart_grids" class="mw-redirect" title="Smart grids">smart grids</a> make it possible to match the times when variable energy production is highest.<a href="#cite_note-Blanco-2018-71">[71]</a> <a href="Sector_coupling" class="mw-redirect" title="Sector coupling">Sector coupling</a> can provide further flexibility. This involves coupling the electricity sector to the heat and mobility sector via <a href="Power-to-heat" class="mw-redirect" title="Power-to-heat">power-to-heat</a>-systems and electric vehicles.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a>

Energy storage helps overcome barriers to intermittent renewable energy.<a href="#cite_note-Koohi-Fayegh-2020-74">[74]</a> The most commonly used and available storage method is <a href="Pumped-storage_hydroelectricity" title="Pumped-storage hydroelectricity">pumped-storage hydroelectricity</a>. This requires locations with large differences in height and access to water.<a href="#cite_note-Koohi-Fayegh-2020-74">[74]</a> Batteries are also in wide use.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> They typically store electricity for short periods.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Batteries have low <a href="Energy_density" title="Energy density">energy density</a>. This and their cost makes them impractical for the large energy storage necessary to balance inter-seasonal variations in energy production.<a href="#cite_note-RoyalSoc-2021-77">[77]</a> Some locations have implemented pumped hydro storage with capacity for multi-month usage.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear_power">Nuclear power</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Sustainable_energy#Nuclear_power" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy § Nuclear power</a>, <a href="Nuclear_power#Carbon_emissions" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power § Carbon emissions</a>, and <a href="Nuclear_power#Comparison_with_renewable_energy" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power § Comparison with renewable energy</a></div>

<a href="Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a> could complement renewables for electricity.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> On the other hand, environmental and security risks could outweigh the benefits.<a href="#cite_note-worldnuclearwastereport-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> Examples of these environmental risks being the discharge of radioactive water to nearby ecosystems, and the routine release of radioactive gases as well.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a>

The construction of new nuclear reactors currently takes about 10 years. This is much longer than scaling up the deployment of wind and solar.<a href="#cite_note-statusreport-84">[84]</a>: 335 And this timing gives rise to credit risks.<a href="#cite_note-DuboisPelerin-2023-85">[85]</a> However nuclear may be much cheaper in China. China is building a significant number of new power plants.<a href="#cite_note-DuboisPelerin-2023-85">[85]</a> As of 2019 the cost of extending nuclear power plant lifetimes is competitive with other electricity generation technologies<a href="#cite_note-IEA2019-86">[86]</a> if long term costs for nuclear waste disposal are excluded from the calculation. There is also no sufficient financial insurance for nuclear accidents.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Replacing_coal_with_natural_gas">Replacing coal with natural gas</h3></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="Sustainable_energy#Fossil_fuel_switching_and_mitigation" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy § Fossil fuel switching and mitigation</a>.[<a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sustainable_energy&action=edit#Fossil_fuel_switching_and_mitigation">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt">

Switching from <a href="Coal" title="Coal">coal</a> to <a href="Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a> has advantages in terms of sustainability. For a given unit of energy produced, the <a href="Life-cycle_greenhouse_gas_emissions_of_energy_sources" title="Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of energy sources">life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions</a> of natural gas are around 40 times the emissions of wind or nuclear energy but are much less than coal. Burning natural gas produces around half the emissions of coal when used to generate electricity and around two-thirds the emissions of coal when used to produce heat.<a href="#cite_note-Sustainable_energy_IEA_gas-88">[88]</a> Natural gas combustion also produces less air pollution than coal.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> However, natural gas is a potent greenhouse gas in itself, and <a href="Fugitive_gas_emissions" title="Fugitive gas emissions">leaks during extraction and transportation</a> can negate the advantages of switching away from coal.<a href="#cite_note-Sustainable_energy_:27-90">[90]</a> The technology to curb <a href="Methane_leaks" class="mw-redirect" title="Methane leaks">methane leaks</a> is widely available but it is not always used.<a href="#cite_note-Sustainable_energy_:27-90">[90]</a>

Switching from coal to natural gas reduces emissions in the short term and thus contributes to climate change mitigation. However, in the long term it does not provide a path to <a href="Net-zero_emissions" title="Net-zero emissions">net-zero emissions</a>. Developing natural gas infrastructure risks <a href="Carbon_lock-in" title="Carbon lock-in">carbon lock-in</a> and <a href="Stranded_assets" class="mw-redirect" title="Stranded assets">stranded assets</a>, where new fossil infrastructure either commits to decades of carbon emissions, or has to be written off before it makes a profit.<a href="#cite_note-Sustainable_energy_nytimes_coal_fades-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demand_reduction">Demand reduction</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Individual_action_on_climate_change" title="Individual action on climate change">Individual action on climate change</a></div>

Reducing demand for products and services that cause greenhouse gas emissions can help in mitigating climate change. One is to reduce demand by <a href="Individual_action_on_climate_change" title="Individual action on climate change">behavioural and cultural changes</a>, for example by making changes in diet, especially the decision to reduce meat consumption,<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> an effective <a href="Individual_action_on_climate_change" title="Individual action on climate change">action individuals take to fight climate change</a>. Another is by reducing the demand by improving infrastructure, by building a good public transport network, for example. Lastly, changes in end-use technology can reduce energy demand. For instance a well-insulated house emits less than a poorly-insulated house.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC-2022-94">[94]</a>: 119

Mitigation options that reduce demand for products or services help people make personal choices to reduce their <a href="Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">carbon footprint</a>. This could be in their choice of transport or food.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_5-95">[95]</a>: 5–3 So these mitigation options have many social aspects that focus on demand reduction; they are therefore demand-side mitigation actions. For example, people with high socio-economic status often cause more greenhouse gas emissions than those from a lower status. If they reduce their emissions and promote green policies, these people could become low-carbon lifestyle role models.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_5-95">[95]</a>: 5–4 However, there are many psychological variables that influence consumers. These include awareness and perceived risk.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a>

Government policies can support or hinder demand-side mitigation options. For example, public policy can promote <a href="Circular_economy" title="Circular economy">circular economy</a> concepts which would support climate change mitigation.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_5-95">[95]</a>: 5–6 Reducing greenhouse gas emissions is linked to the <a href="Sharing_economy" title="Sharing economy">sharing economy</a>.

There is a debate regarding the correlation of economic growth and emissions. It seems economic growth no longer necessarily means higher emissions.<a href="#cite_note-The_Economist-0013-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-EIB-2021-98">[98]</a>

A 2024 article in Nature Climate Change emphasises the importance of integrating behavioural science into climate change mitigation strategies. The article presents six key recommendations aimed at improving individual and collective actions toward reducing greenhouse gas emissions, including overcoming barriers to research, fostering cross-disciplinary collaborations, and promoting practical behaviour-oriented solutions. These insights suggest that behavioural science plays a crucial role alongside technological and policy measures in addressing climate change.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Energy_conservation_and_efficiency">Energy conservation and efficiency</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Energy_conservation" title="Energy conservation">Energy conservation</a> and <a href="Efficient_energy_use" title="Efficient energy use">Efficient energy use</a></div>

Global <a href="Primary_energy" title="Primary energy">primary energy</a> demand exceeded 161,000 terawatt hours (TWh) in 2018.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> This refers to electricity, transport and heating including all losses. In transport and electricity production, fossil fuel usage has a low efficiency of less than 50%. Large amounts of heat in power plants and in motors of vehicles go to waste. The actual amount of energy consumed is significantly lower at 116,000 TWh.<a href="#cite_note-IEA-101">[101]</a>

<a href="Energy_conservation" title="Energy conservation">Energy conservation</a> is the effort made to reduce the <a href="Energy_consumption" title="Energy consumption">consumption of energy</a> by using less of an energy service. One way is to <a href="Efficient_energy_use" title="Efficient energy use">use energy more efficiently</a>. This means using less energy than before to produce the same service. Another way is to reduce the amount of service used. An example of this would be to drive less. Energy conservation is at the top of the sustainable <a href="Energy_hierarchy" title="Energy hierarchy">energy hierarchy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-REW-2015-102">[102]</a> When consumers reduce wastage and losses they can conserve energy. The upgrading of technology as well as the improvements to operations and maintenance can result in overall efficiency improvements.

<a href="Efficient_energy_use" title="Efficient energy use">Efficient energy use</a> (or energy efficiency) is the process of reducing the amount of energy required to provide products and services. Improved <a href="Energy-efficient_buildings" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy-efficient buildings">energy efficiency in buildings</a> ("green buildings"), industrial processes and transportation could reduce the world's energy needs in 2050 by one third. This would help reduce global emissions of greenhouse gases.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> For example, insulating a building allows it to use less heating and cooling energy to achieve and maintain thermal comfort. Improvements in energy efficiency are generally achieved by adopting a more efficient technology or production process.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> Another way is to use commonly accepted methods to reduce energy losses.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lifestyle_changes">Lifestyle changes</h3></div>

<a href="Individual_action_on_climate_change" title="Individual action on climate change">Individual action on climate change</a> can include personal choices in many areas. These include diet, travel, household energy use, consumption of goods and services, and family size. People who wish to reduce their <a href="Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">carbon footprint</a> can take high-impact actions such as avoiding <a href="Frequent_flying" class="mw-redirect" title="Frequent flying">frequent flying</a> and petrol-fuelled cars, eating mainly a <a href="Plant-based_diet" title="Plant-based diet">plant-based diet</a>, having fewer children,<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> using clothes and electrical products for longer,<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> and electrifying homes.<a href="#cite_note-Adcock-2022-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ripple-2013-110">[110]</a> These approaches are more practical for people in high-income countries with high-consumption lifestyles. Naturally, it is more difficult for those with lower income statuses to make these changes. This is because choices like electric-powered cars may not be available. Excessive consumption is more to blame for climate change than population increase.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> High-consumption lifestyles have a greater environmental impact, with the richest 10% of people emitting about half the total lifestyle emissions.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dietary_change">Dietary change</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Low-carbon_diet" title="Low-carbon diet">Low-carbon diet</a> and <a href="Plant-based_diet" title="Plant-based diet">Plant-based diet</a></div>

Some scientists say that avoiding meat and dairy foods is the single biggest way an individual can reduce their environmental impact.<a href="#cite_note-the_Guardian-2018-114">[114]</a> The widespread adoption of a vegetarian diet could cut food-related greenhouse gas emissions by 63% by 2050.<a href="#cite_note-harvey-2016-115">[115]</a> China introduced new dietary guidelines in 2016 which aim to cut meat consumption by 50% and thereby reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 1 Gt per year by 2030.<a href="#cite_note-milman-2016-116">[116]</a> Overall, food accounts for the largest share of consumption-based greenhouse gas emissions. It is responsible for nearly 20% of the global carbon footprint. Almost 15% of all anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions have been attributed to the livestock sector.<a href="#cite_note-Ripple-2013-110">[110]</a>

A shift towards <a href="Plant-based_diets" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant-based diets">plant-based diets</a> would help to mitigate climate change.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> In particular, reducing meat consumption would help to reduce methane emissions.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> If high-income nations switched to a plant-based diet, vast amounts of land used for animal agriculture could be allowed to <a href="Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">return to their natural state</a>. This in turn has the potential to sequester 100 billion tonnes of CO2 by the end of the century.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> A comprehensive analysis found that plant based diets reduce emissions, water pollution and land use significantly (by 75%), while reducing the destruction of wildlife and usage of water.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Family_size">Family size</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Individual_action_on_climate_change#Family_size" title="Individual action on climate change">Individual action on climate change § Family size</a></div> <a href="Projections_of_population_growth" class="mw-redirect" title="Projections of population growth">Population growth</a> has resulted in higher greenhouse gas emissions in most regions, particularly Africa.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_6-43">[43]</a>: 6–11 However, economic growth has a bigger effect than population growth.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_5-95">[95]</a>: 6–622 Rising incomes, changes in consumption and dietary patterns, as well as population growth, cause pressure on land and other natural resources. This leads to more greenhouse gas emissions and fewer carbon sinks.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_7-123">[123]</a>: 117 Some scholars have argued that humane policies to slow population growth should be part of a broad climate response together with policies that end fossil fuel use and encourage sustainable consumption.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> Advances in female education and <a href="Sexual_and_reproductive_health" title="Sexual and reproductive health">reproductive health</a>, especially voluntary <a href="Family_planning" title="Family planning">family planning</a>, can contribute to reducing population growth.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_5-95">[95]</a>: 5–35

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Preserving_and_enhancing_carbon_sinks">Preserving and enhancing carbon sinks</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">Carbon dioxide removal</a>, <a href="Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration</a>, and <a href="Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">Carbon sink</a></div>

An important mitigation measure is "preserving and enhancing <a href="Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sinks</a>".<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_13-7">[7]</a> This refers to the management of Earth's natural <a href="Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sinks</a> in a way that preserves or increases their capability to remove CO2 from the atmosphere and to store it durably. Scientists call this process also <a href="Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a>. In the context of climate change mitigation, the IPCC defines a sink as "Any process, activity or mechanism which removes a greenhouse gas, an aerosol or a precursor of a greenhouse gas from the atmosphere".<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WGI_Glossary-16">[16]</a>: 2249 Globally, the two most important carbon sinks are vegetation and the <a href="Ocean" title="Ocean">ocean</a>.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a>

To enhance the ability of <a href="Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a> to sequester carbon, changes are necessary in agriculture and forestry.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> Examples are preventing <a href="Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a> and restoring natural ecosystems by <a href="Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a>: 266 Scenarios that limit global warming to 1.5 °C typically project the large-scale use of <a href="Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">carbon dioxide removal methods</a> over the 21st century.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a>: 1068 <a href="#cite_note-IPCC-2018-129">[129]</a>: 17 There are concerns about over-reliance on these technologies, and their environmental impacts.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC-2018-129">[129]</a>: 17 <a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a>: 34 But ecosystem restoration and reduced conversion are among the mitigation tools that can yield the most emissions reductions before 2030.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_13-7">[7]</a>: 43

Land-based mitigation options are referred to as "AFOLU mitigation options" in the 2022 IPCC report on mitigation. The abbreviation stands for "agriculture, forestry and other land use"<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_13-7">[7]</a>: 37 The report described the economic mitigation potential from relevant activities around forests and ecosystems as follows: "the conservation, improved management, and restoration of forests and other ecosystems (coastal wetlands, <a href="Peatlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Peatlands">peatlands</a>, savannas and grasslands)". A high mitigation potential is found for reducing deforestation in tropical regions. The economic potential of these activities has been estimated to be 4.2 to 7.4 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (GtCO2 -eq) per year.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_13-7">[7]</a>: 37

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Forests">Forests</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Carbon_sequestration#Forestry" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration § Forestry</a>, <a href="Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation and climate change</a>, and <a href="Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation">Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Conservation">Conservation</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Deforestation#Control" title="Deforestation">Deforestation § Control</a>, <a href="Proforestation" class="mw-redirect" title="Proforestation">Proforestation</a>, and <a href="Wildfire#Prevention" title="Wildfire">Wildfire § Prevention</a></div>

The <a href="Stern_Review" title="Stern Review">Stern Review</a> on the economics of climate change stated in 2007 that curbing <a href="Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a> was a highly cost-effective way of reducing greenhouse gas emissions.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> About 95% of deforestation occurs in the tropics, where clearing of land for agriculture is one of the main causes.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> One forest conservation strategy is to transfer rights over land from public ownership to its indigenous inhabitants.<a href="#cite_note-Guardian1-133">[133]</a> Land concessions often go to powerful extractive companies.<a href="#cite_note-Guardian1-133">[133]</a> Conservation strategies that exclude and even evict humans, called <a href="Fortress_conservation" title="Fortress conservation">fortress conservation</a>, often lead to more exploitation of the land. This is because the native inhabitants turn to work for extractive companies to survive.<a href="#cite_note-fp0718-134">[134]</a>

<a href="Proforestation" class="mw-redirect" title="Proforestation">Proforestation</a> is promoting forests to capture their full ecological potential.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA2-135">[135]</a> This is a mitigation strategy as <a href="Secondary_forest" title="Secondary forest">secondary forests</a> that have regrown in abandoned farmland are found to have less biodiversity than the original <a href="Old-growth_forest" title="Old-growth forest">old-growth forests</a>. Original forests store 60% more carbon than these new forests.<a href="#cite_note-nytimes0109-136">[136]</a> Strategies include <a href="Rewilding_(conservation_biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Rewilding (conservation biology)">rewilding</a> and establishing <a href="Wildlife_corridor" title="Wildlife corridor">wildlife corridors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-137">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Afforestation,_reforestation_and_preventing_desertification">Afforestation, reforestation and preventing desertification</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Desertification#Countermeasures" title="Desertification">Desertification § Countermeasures</a></div>

<a href="Afforestation" title="Afforestation">Afforestation</a> is the establishment of trees where there was previously no tree cover. Scenarios for new plantations covering up to 4000 million hectares (Mha) (6300 x 6300 km) suggest cumulative carbon storage of more than 900 GtC (2300 GtCO2) until 2100.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> But they are not a viable alternative to aggressive emissions reduction.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> This is because the plantations would need to be so large they would eliminate most natural ecosystems or reduce food production.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> One example is the <a href="Trillion_Tree_Campaign" title="Trillion Tree Campaign">Trillion Tree Campaign</a>.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> However, preserving <a href="Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> is also important and for example not all <a href="Grassland" title="Grassland">grasslands</a> are suitable for conversion into forests.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> Grasslands can even turn from <a href="Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sinks</a> to <a href="Carbon_source" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon source">carbon sources</a>.

<a href="Reforestation" title="Reforestation">Reforestation</a> is the restocking of existing depleted forests or in places where there were recently forests. Reforestation could save at least 1 GtCO2 per year, at an estimated cost of $5–15 per tonne of carbon dioxide (tCO2).<a href="#cite_note-stern-147">[147]</a> Restoring all degraded forests all over the world could capture about 205 GtC (750 GtCO2).<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> With increased <a href="Intensive_agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Intensive agriculture">intensive agriculture</a> and <a href="Urbanisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Urbanisation">urbanisation</a>, there is an increase in the amount of abandoned farmland. By some estimates, for every acre of original <a href="Old-growth_forest" title="Old-growth forest">old-growth forest</a> cut down, more than 50 acres of new <a href="Secondary_forest" title="Secondary forest">secondary forests</a> are growing.<a href="#cite_note-nytimes0109-136">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> In some countries, promoting regrowth on abandoned farmland could offset years of emissions.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a>

Planting new trees can be expensive and a risky investment. For example, about 80 per cent of planted trees in the <a href="Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a> die within two years.<a href="#cite_note-ScientificAmerican2011-145">[145]</a> Reforestation has higher carbon storage potential than afforestation. Even long-deforested areas still contain an "underground forest" of living roots and tree stumps. Helping native species sprout naturally is cheaper than planting new trees and they are more likely to survive. This could include <a href="Pruning" title="Pruning">pruning</a> and <a href="Coppicing" title="Coppicing">coppicing</a> to accelerate growth. This also provides woodfuel, which is otherwise a major source of deforestation. Such practices, called <a href="Farmer-managed_natural_regeneration" class="mw-redirect" title="Farmer-managed natural regeneration">farmer-managed natural regeneration</a>, are centuries old but the biggest obstacle towards implementation is ownership of the trees by the state. The state often sells timber rights to businesses which leads to locals uprooting seedlings because they see them as a liability. Legal aid for locals<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> and changes to property law such as in Mali and Niger have led to significant changes. Scientists describe them as the largest positive environmental transformation in Africa. It is possible to discern from space the border between Niger and the more barren land in Nigeria, where the law has not changed.<a href="#cite_note-ScientificAmerican2011-145">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-ensia2020-146">[146]</a>

<a href="Rangeland" title="Rangeland">Rangelands</a> account for more half the world’s land and could sequester 35% of terrestrial carbon.<a href="#cite_note-iucn-153">[153]</a> <a href="Pastoralism" title="Pastoralism">Pastoralists</a> are those who move with their herds that feed and migrate over often <a href="Extensive_farming" title="Extensive farming">unenclosed grazelands</a>. Such land is usually unable to grow any other kind of food. Rangelands coevolved with large wild herds, many of which have decreased or gone extinct, and <a href="Nomadic_pastoralism" title="Nomadic pastoralism">pastoralists</a>’ herds replace such wild herds and thus help maintain the ecosystem.<a href="#cite_note-geographical-154">[154]</a> However, the movement of herds grazing on large areas over vast distances is increasingly restricted by governments, who often grant exclusive title to lands for more profitable uses which restricts pastoralists to more enclose spaces.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> This has led to the overgrazing of the land and <a href="Desertification" title="Desertification">desertification</a>, as well as <a href="Nomadic_conflict" title="Nomadic conflict">conflict</a>.<a href="#cite_note-iucn-153">[153]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soils">Soils</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Carbon_sequestration#Agriculture" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration § Agriculture</a>, and <a href="Carbon_farming" title="Carbon farming">Carbon farming</a></div>

There are many measures to increase soil carbon.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> This makes it complex<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> and hard to measure and account for.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> One advantage is that there are fewer trade-offs for these measures than for <a href="Bioenergy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage">BECCS</a> or afforestation, for example.

Globally, protecting healthy soils and restoring the soil carbon sponge could remove 7.6 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere annually. This is more than the annual emissions of the US.<a href="#cite_note-wri.org-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> Trees capture CO2 while growing above ground and <a href="Plant_root_exudates" title="Plant root exudates">exuding</a> larger amounts of carbon below ground. Trees contribute to the building of a <a href="Soil_carbon_sponge" title="Soil carbon sponge">soil carbon sponge</a>. Carbon formed above ground is released as CO2 immediately when wood is burned. If dead wood remains untouched, only some of the carbon returns to the atmosphere as decomposition proceeds.<a href="#cite_note-wri.org-159">[159]</a>

Farming can deplete soil carbon and render soil incapable of supporting life. However, <a href="Conservation_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation farming">conservation farming</a> can protect carbon in soils, and repair damage over time.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> The farming practice of <a href="Cover_crop" title="Cover crop">cover crops</a> is a form of <a href="Carbon_farming" title="Carbon farming">carbon farming</a>.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> Methods that enhance carbon sequestration in soil include <a href="No-till_farming" title="No-till farming">no-till farming</a>, residue mulching and <a href="Crop_rotation" title="Crop rotation">crop rotation</a>. Scientists have described the best management practices for European soils to increase soil organic carbon. These are conversion of arable land to grassland, straw incorporation, reduced tillage, straw incorporation combined with reduced tillage, <a href="Ley_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Ley farming">ley cropping</a> system and cover crops.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a>

Another mitigation option is the production of <a href="Biochar" title="Biochar">biochar</a> and its storage in soils This is the solid material that remains after the <a href="Pyrolysis" title="Pyrolysis">pyrolysis</a> of <a href="Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a>. Biochar production releases half of the carbon from the biomass—either released into the atmosphere or captured with CCS—and retains the other half in the stable biochar.<a href="#cite_note-Lehmann-2021-164">[164]</a> It can endure in soil for thousands of years.<a href="#cite_note-DOI10.1038/ncomms1053-165">[165]</a> Biochar may increase the <a href="Soil_fertility" title="Soil fertility">soil fertility</a> of <a href="Acidic_soil" class="mw-redirect" title="Acidic soil">acidic soils</a> and increase <a href="Agricultural_productivity" title="Agricultural productivity">agricultural productivity</a>. During production of biochar, heat is released which may be used as <a href="Bioenergy" title="Bioenergy">bioenergy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lehmann-2021-164">[164]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wetlands">Wetlands</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Carbon_sequestration#Wetlands" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration § Wetlands</a>, and <a href="Wetland#Climate_change_mitigation" title="Wetland">Wetland § Climate change mitigation</a></div>

Wetland restoration is an important mitigation measure. It has moderate to great mitigation potential on a limited land area with low trade-offs and costs.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> Wetlands perform two important functions in relation to climate change. They can <a href="Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">sequester carbon</a>, converting carbon dioxide to solid plant material through <a href="Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>. They also store and regulate water.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> Wetlands store about 45 million tonnes of carbon per year globally.<a href="#cite_note-Chmura,_G._L._20032-169">[169]</a>

Some <a href="Wetland_methane_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Wetland methane emissions">wetlands are a significant source of methane emissions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> Some also emit <a href="Nitrous_oxide" title="Nitrous oxide">nitrous oxide</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bange-2006-171">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-Thompson-2012-172">[172]</a> <a href="Peat" title="Peat">Peatland</a> globally covers just 3% of the land's surface.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> But it stores up to 550 gigatonnes (Gt) of carbon. This represents 42% of all soil carbon and exceeds the carbon stored in all other vegetation types, including the world's forests.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> The threat to peatlands includes draining the areas for agriculture. Another threat is cutting down trees for lumber, as the trees help hold and fix the peatland.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> Additionally, peat is often sold for compost.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> It is possible to restore degraded peatlands by blocking drainage channels in the peatland, and allowing natural vegetation to recover.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-137">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a>

<a href="Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangroves</a>, <a href="Salt_marsh" title="Salt marsh">salt marshes</a> and <a href="Seagrass" title="Seagrass">seagrasses</a> make up the majority of the ocean's vegetated habitats. They only equal 0.05% of the plant biomass on land. But they store carbon 40 times faster than tropical forests.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-137">[137]</a> <a href="Bottom_trawling" title="Bottom trawling">Bottom trawling</a>, <a href="Dredging" title="Dredging">dredging</a> for coastal development and <a href="Fertiliser_runoff" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertiliser runoff">fertiliser runoff</a> have damaged coastal habitats. Notably, 85% of <a href="Oyster_reef" title="Oyster reef">oyster reefs</a> globally have been removed in the last two centuries. Oyster reefs clean the water and help other species thrive. This increases biomass in that area. In addition, oyster reefs mitigate the effects of climate change by reducing the force of waves from hurricanes. They also reduce the erosion from rising sea levels.<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> Restoration of coastal wetlands is thought to be more cost-effective than restoration of inland wetlands.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deep_ocean">Deep ocean</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Carbon_sequestration#Sequestration_techniques_in_oceans" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration § Sequestration techniques in oceans</a>, <a href="Ocean_acidification#Technologies_to_remove_carbon_dioxide_from_the_ocean" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification § Technologies to remove carbon dioxide from the ocean</a>, and <a href="Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">Blue carbon</a></div>

These options focus on the carbon which ocean reservoirs can store. They include <a href="Ocean_fertilization" title="Ocean fertilization">ocean fertilization</a>, <a href="Ocean_alkalinity_enhancement" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean alkalinity enhancement">ocean alkalinity enhancement</a> or <a href="Enhanced_weathering" title="Enhanced weathering">enhanced weathering</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_12-181">[181]</a>: 12–36 The IPCC found in 2022 ocean-based mitigation options currently have only limited deployment potential. But it assessed that their future mitigation potential is large.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_12-181">[181]</a>: 12–4 It found that in total, ocean-based methods could remove 1–100 Gt of CO2 per year.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC-2022-94">[94]</a>: TS-94 Their costs are in the order of US$40–500 per tonne of CO2. Most of these options could also help to reduce <a href="Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">ocean acidification</a>. This is the drop in pH value caused by increased atmospheric CO2 concentrations.<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a>

The recovery of whale populations can play a role in mitigation as <a href="Whale" title="Whale">whales</a> play a significant part in <a href="Nutrient_recycling" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrient recycling">nutrient recycling</a> in the ocean. This occurs through what is referred to as the <a href="Whale_pump" class="mw-redirect" title="Whale pump">whale pump</a>, where whales’ liquid feces stay at the surface of the ocean. <a href="Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">Phytoplankton</a> live near the surface of the ocean in order use sunlight to photosynthesize and rely on much of the carbon, nitrogen and iron of the feces. As the phytoplankton form the <a href="Primary_production" title="Primary production">base</a> of the <a href="Marine_food_chain" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine food chain">marine food chain</a> this increases ocean biomass and thus the amount of carbon sequestrated in it.<a href="#cite_note-PLOSOne-183">[183]</a>

Blue carbon management is another type of ocean-based biological <a href="Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">carbon dioxide removal</a> (CDR). It can involve land-based as well as ocean-based measures.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_12-181">[181]</a>: 12–51 <a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a>: 764 The term usually refers to the role that <a href="Tidal_marsh" title="Tidal marsh">tidal marshes</a>, <a href="Mangrove" title="Mangrove">mangroves</a> and <a href="Seagrass" title="Seagrass">seagrasses</a> can play in carbon sequestration.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WGI_Glossary-16">[16]</a>: 2220 Some of these efforts can also take place in deep ocean waters. This is where the vast majority of ocean carbon is held. These ecosystems can contribute to climate change mitigation and also to <a href="Ecosystem-based_adaptation" title="Ecosystem-based adaptation">ecosystem-based adaptation</a>. Conversely, when blue carbon ecosystems are degraded or lost they release carbon back to the atmosphere.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WGI_Glossary-16">[16]</a>: 2220 There is increasing interest in developing blue carbon potential.<a href="#cite_note-Ricart2022-185">[185]</a> Scientists have found that in some cases these types of ecosystems remove far more carbon per area than terrestrial forests. However, the long-term effectiveness of blue carbon as a carbon dioxide removal solution remains under discussion.<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ricart2022-185">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-Boyd2022-187">[187]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Enhanced_weathering">Enhanced weathering</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Enhanced_weathering" title="Enhanced weathering">Enhanced weathering</a></div>

Enhanced weathering could remove 2–4 Gt of CO2 per year. This process aims to accelerate natural <a href="Weathering" title="Weathering">weathering</a> by spreading finely ground <a href="Silicate_mineral" title="Silicate mineral">silicate</a> rock, such as <a href="Basalt" title="Basalt">basalt</a>, onto surfaces. This speeds up chemical reactions between rocks, water, and air. It <a href="Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">removes carbon dioxide</a> from the atmosphere, permanently storing it in solid <a href="Carbonate_mineral" title="Carbonate mineral">carbonate minerals</a> or ocean <a href="Alkalinity" title="Alkalinity">alkalinity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> Cost estimates are in the US$50–200 per tonne range of CO2.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC-2022-94">[94]</a>: TS-94

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_methods_to_capture_and_store_CO2">Other methods to capture and store CO2</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Direct_air_capture" title="Direct air capture">Direct air capture</a>, <a href="Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">Carbon capture and storage</a>, and <a href="Bioenergy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage">Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage</a></div>

In addition to traditional land-based methods to remove carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air, other technologies are under development. These could reduce CO2 emissions and lower existing atmospheric CO2 levels. <a href="Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">Carbon capture and storage</a> (CCS) is a method to mitigate climate change by capturing CO2 from large <a href="Point_source_pollution" title="Point source pollution">point sources</a>, such as cement factories or <a href="Bioenergy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage">biomass</a> power plants. It then stores it away safely instead of releasing it into the atmosphere. The IPCC estimates that the costs of halting global warming would double without CCS.<a href="#cite_note-guardian0916-189">[189]</a>

Among the most viable carbon dioxide removal methods considered alongside solar radiation modification, biochar soil amendment is already being deployed commercially. Studies indicate that the carbon it contains remains stable in soils for centuries, giving it a durable potential of removing gigatonnes of CO2 per year.<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> Expert assessments place the net cost of removing CO2 with biochar between US$30 and $120 per tonne. Market data show that biochar supplied 94% of all durable CDR credits delivered in 2023, demonstrating current scalability.<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> Stratospheric aerosol injection (SAI), by comparison, could reduce global temperature quickly by dispersing sulfate aerosols in the stratosphere; however, deployment at climatically relevant scale would require the design and certification of a new fleet of high‑altitude aircraft, a process estimated to take a decade or more, and ongoing operating costs of about US$18 billion for each degree Celsius of cooling.<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> While models confirm that SAI would lower global mean temperature, there are potential side effect including ozone depletion, altered

regional precipitation patterns, and the risk of a sudden "termination shock" warming if the programme were interrupted. These systemic risks are absent from biochar deployment.<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a>

<a href="Bioenergy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage">Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage</a> (BECCS) expands on the potential of CCS and aims to lower atmospheric CO2 levels. This process uses <a href="Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a> grown for <a href="Bioenergy" title="Bioenergy">bioenergy</a>. The biomass yields energy in useful forms such as electricity, heat, biofuels, etc. through consumption of the biomass via combustion, fermentation, or pyrolysis. The process captures the CO2 that was extracted from the atmosphere when it grew. It then stores it underground or via land application as <a href="Biochar" title="Biochar">biochar</a>. This effectively <a href="Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">removes it from the atmosphere</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Obersteiner2-195">[195]</a> This makes BECCS a negative emissions technology (NET).<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a>

Scientists estimated the potential range of negative emissions from BECCS in 2018 as 0–22 Gt per year.<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a> As of 2022, BECCS was capturing approximately 2 million tonnes per year of CO2 annually.<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a> The cost and availability of biomass limits wide deployment of BECCS.<a href="#cite_note-rhodes2-199">[199]</a><a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a>: 10 BECCS currently forms a big part of achieving climate targets beyond 2050 in modelling, such as by the <a href="Integrated_assessment_modelling" title="Integrated assessment modelling">Integrated Assessment Models</a> (IAMs) associated with the IPCC process. But many scientists are sceptical due to the risk of loss of biodiversity.<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a>

<a href="Direct_air_capture" title="Direct air capture">Direct air capture</a> is a process of capturing CO2 directly from the ambient air. This is in contrast to CCS which captures carbon from point sources. It generates a concentrated stream of CO2 for <a href="Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">sequestration</a>, <a href="Carbon_capture_and_utilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon capture and utilization">utilisation</a> or production of <a href="Carbon-neutral_fuel" title="Carbon-neutral fuel">carbon-neutral fuel</a> and <a href="Windgas" class="mw-redirect" title="Windgas">windgas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a> Artificial processes vary, and there are concerns about the long-term effects of some of these processes.<a href="#cite_note-RoyalSociety-203">[203]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mitigation_by_sector">Mitigation by sector</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Greenhouse_gas_emissions#Emissions_by_sector" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions § Emissions by sector</a></div>

<div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:492px;max-width:492px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:236px;max-width:236px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:187px;overflow:hidden"></div><div class="thumbcaption">Taking into account direct and indirect emissions, industry is the sector with the highest share of global emissions.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:252px;max-width:252px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:187px;overflow:hidden"></div><div class="thumbcaption">2016 global greenhouse gas emissions by sector.<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> Percentages are calculated from estimated global emissions of all Kyoto Greenhouse Gases, converted to CO2 equivalent quantities (GtCO2e).</div></div></div></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Buildings">Buildings</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Energy-efficient_buildings" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy-efficient buildings">Energy-efficient buildings</a>, <a href="Sustainable_architecture" title="Sustainable architecture">Sustainable architecture</a>, <a href="Green_building" title="Green building">Green building</a>, <a href="Low-energy_house" title="Low-energy house">Low-energy house</a>, and <a href="Air_conditioning_paradox" class="mw-redirect" title="Air conditioning paradox">Air conditioning paradox</a></div>

The building sector accounts for 23% of global energy-related CO2 emissions.<a href="#cite_note-Rogelj-2018-17">[17]</a>: 141 About half of the energy is used for space and <a href="Water_heating" title="Water heating">water heating</a>.<a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a> Building insulation can reduce the primary energy demand significantly. <a href="Heat_pump" title="Heat pump">Heat pump</a> loads may also provide a flexible resource that can participate in <a href="Demand_response" title="Demand response">demand response</a> to integrate variable renewable resources into the grid.<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a> <a href="Solar_water_heating" title="Solar water heating">Solar water heating</a> uses thermal energy directly. Sufficiency measures include moving to smaller houses when the needs of households change, mixed use of spaces and the collective use of devices.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC-2022-94">[94]</a>: 71 Planners and civil engineers can construct new buildings using <a href="Passive_solar_building_design" title="Passive solar building design">passive solar building design</a>, <a href="Low-energy_building" class="mw-redirect" title="Low-energy building">low-energy building</a>, or <a href="Zero-energy_building" title="Zero-energy building">zero-energy building</a> techniques. In addition, it is possible to design buildings that are more energy-efficient to cool by using lighter-coloured, more reflective materials in the development of urban areas.

Heat pumps efficiently heat buildings, and cool them by <a href="Air_conditioning" title="Air conditioning">air conditioning</a>. A modern heat pump typically transports around three to five times more thermal energy than electrical energy consumed. The amount depends on the <a href="Coefficient_of_performance" title="Coefficient of performance">coefficient of performance</a> and the outside temperature.<a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a>

Refrigeration and air conditioning account for about 10% of global CO2 emissions caused by fossil fuel-based energy production and the use of fluorinated gases. Alternative cooling systems, such as <a href="Passive_cooling" title="Passive cooling">passive cooling</a> building design and <a href="Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling" title="Passive daytime radiative cooling">passive daytime radiative cooling</a> surfaces, can reduce air conditioning use. Suburbs and cities in hot and arid climates can significantly reduce energy consumption from cooling with daytime radiative cooling.<a href="#cite_note-Zhou-2021-208">[208]</a>

Energy consumption for cooling is likely to rise significantly due to increasing heat and availability of devices in poorer countries. Of the 2.8 billion people living in the hottest parts of the world, only 8% currently have air conditioners, compared with 90% of people in the US and Japan.<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a> Adoption of air conditioners typically increases in warmer areas at above $10,000 annual household income.<a href="#cite_note-Davis-210">[210]</a> By combining energy efficiency improvements and decarbonising electricity for air conditioning with the transition away from super-polluting refrigerants, the world could avoid cumulative greenhouse gas emissions of up to 210–460 GtCO2-eq over the next four decades.<a href="#cite_note-IEA2020-211">[211]</a> A shift to renewable energy in the cooling sector comes with two advantages: Solar energy production with mid-day peaks corresponds with the load required for cooling and additionally, cooling has a large potential for load management in the electric grid.<a href="#cite_note-IEA2020-211">[211]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Urban_planning">Urban planning</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Climate_change_and_cities" title="Climate change and cities">Climate change and cities</a></div>

Cities emitted 28 GtCO2-eq in 2020 of combined CO2 and CH4 emissions.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC-2022-94">[94]</a>: TS-61 This was from producing and consuming goods and services.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC-2022-94">[94]</a>: TS-61 Climate-smart <a href="Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban planning</a> aims to reduce <a href="Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl">sprawl</a> to reduce the distance travelled. This lowers emissions from transportation. Switching from cars by improving <a href="Walkability" title="Walkability">walkability</a> and <a href="Cycling_infrastructure" title="Cycling infrastructure">cycling infrastructure</a> is beneficial to a country's economy as a whole.<a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a>

<a href="Urban_forestry" title="Urban forestry">Urban forestry</a>, lakes and other blue and green infrastructure can reduce emissions directly and indirectly by reducing energy demand for cooling.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC-2022-94">[94]</a>: TS-66 Methane emissions from <a href="Municipal_solid_waste" title="Municipal solid waste">municipal solid waste</a> can be reduced by segregation, <a href="Compost" title="Compost">composting</a>, and recycling.<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transport">Transport</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Sustainable_transport" title="Sustainable transport">Sustainable transport</a> and <a href="Phase-out_of_fossil_fuel_vehicles" title="Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles">Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles</a></div>

Transportation accounts for 15% of emissions worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a> Increasing the use of public transport, low-carbon freight transport and <a href="Cycling" title="Cycling">cycling</a> are important components of transport decarbonisation.<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1016/j.scs.2016.01.004-218">[218]</a>

<a href="Electric_vehicle" title="Electric vehicle">Electric vehicles</a> and environmentally friendly rail help to reduce the consumption of fossil fuels. In most cases, electric trains are more efficient than air transport and truck transport.<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> Other efficiency means include improved public transport, <a href="Smart_mobility" title="Smart mobility">smart mobility</a>, carsharing and <a href="Hybrid_vehicle" title="Hybrid vehicle">electric hybrids</a>. Fossil-fuel for passenger cars can be included in emissions trading.<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> Furthermore, moving away from a <a href="Car" title="Car">car</a>-dominated transport system towards low-carbon advanced public transport system is important.<a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a>

Heavyweight, large personal vehicles (such as cars) require a lot of energy to move and take up much urban space.<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-Casson-223">[223]</a> Several alternatives modes of transport are available to replace these. The European Union has made smart mobility part of its <a href="European_Green_Deal" title="European Green Deal">European Green Deal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a> In <a href="Smart_city" title="Smart city">smart cities</a>, smart mobility is also important.<a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a>

The World Bank is helping lower income countries buy electric buses. Their purchase price is higher than diesel buses. But lower running costs and health improvements due to cleaner air can offset this higher price.<a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a>

Between one quarter and three quarters of cars on the road by 2050 are forecast to be electric vehicles.<a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a> <a href="Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">Hydrogen</a> may be a solution for long-distance heavy freight trucks, if batteries alone are too heavy.<a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Shipping">Shipping</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">Environmental effects of shipping § Greenhouse gas emissions</a></div>

In the shipping industry, the use of <a href="Liquefied_natural_gas" title="Liquefied natural gas">liquefied natural gas</a> (LNG) as a marine bunker fuel is driven by emissions regulations. Ship operators must switch from <a href="Heavy_fuel_oil" title="Heavy fuel oil">heavy fuel oil</a> to more expensive oil-based fuels, implement costly flue gas treatment technologies or switch to <a href="Marine_LNG_Engine" title="Marine LNG Engine">LNG engines</a>.<a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a> Methane slip, when gas leaks unburned through the engine, lowers the advantages of LNG. <a href="Maersk" title="Maersk">Maersk</a>, the world's biggest container shipping line and vessel operator, warns of <a href="Stranded_asset" title="Stranded asset">stranded assets</a> when investing in transitional fuels like LNG.<a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a> The company lists green <a href="Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a> as one of the preferred fuel types of the future. It has announced the first carbon-neutral vessel on the water by 2023, running on carbon-neutral <a href="Methanol" title="Methanol">methanol</a>.<a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a> Cruise operators are trialling partially <a href="Hydrogen-powered_ship" title="Hydrogen-powered ship">hydrogen-powered ships</a>.<a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a>

Hybrid and all electric ferries are suitable for short distances. Norway's goal is an all electric fleet by 2025.<a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Air_transport">Air transport</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Environmental_impact_of_aviation" title="Environmental impact of aviation">environmental impact of aviation</a></div>

Jet airliners contribute to climate change by emitting carbon dioxide, <a href="Nitrogen_oxides" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrogen oxides">nitrogen oxides</a>, <a href="Condensation_trails" class="mw-redirect" title="Condensation trails">contrails</a> and particulates. Their <a href="Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">radiative forcing</a> is estimated at 1.3–1.4 that of CO2 alone, excluding induced <a href="Cirrus_cloud" title="Cirrus cloud">cirrus cloud</a>. In 2018, global commercial operations generated 2.4% of all CO2 emissions.<a href="#cite_note-ICCTsep2019-235">[235]</a>

The aviation industry has become more fuel efficient. But overall emissions have risen as the volume of air travel has increased. By 2020, aviation emissions were 70% higher than in 2005 and they could grow by 300% by 2050.<a href="#cite_note-EC-aviation-236">[236]</a>

It is possible to reduce aviation's environmental footprint by better <a href="Fuel_economy_in_aircraft" title="Fuel economy in aircraft">fuel economy in aircraft</a>. Optimising flight routes to lower non-CO2 effects on climate from nitrogen oxides, particulates or contrails can also help. <a href="Aviation_biofuel" title="Aviation biofuel">Aviation biofuel</a>, <a href="Carbon_emission_trading" title="Carbon emission trading">carbon emission trading</a> and <a href="Carbon_offsetting" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon offsetting">carbon offsetting</a>, part of the 191 nation ICAO's <a href="Carbon_Offsetting_and_Reduction_Scheme_for_International_Aviation" title="Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation">Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation</a> (CORSIA), can lower CO2 emissions. <a href="Short-haul_flight_ban" title="Short-haul flight ban">Short-haul flight bans</a>, train connections, personal choices and <a href="Aviation_taxation_and_subsidies" title="Aviation taxation and subsidies">taxation on flights</a> can lead to fewer flights. <a href="Hybrid_electric_aircraft" title="Hybrid electric aircraft">Hybrid electric aircraft</a> and <a href="Electric_aircraft" title="Electric aircraft">electric aircraft</a> or <a href="Hydrogen-powered_aircraft" title="Hydrogen-powered aircraft">hydrogen-powered aircraft</a> may replace fossil fuel-powered aircraft.

Experts expect emissions from aviation to rise in most projections, at least until 2040. They currently amount to 180 Mt of CO2 or 11% of transport emissions. <a href="Aviation_biofuel" title="Aviation biofuel">Aviation biofuel</a> and hydrogen can only cover a small proportion of flights in the coming years. Experts expect hybrid-driven aircraft to start commercial regional scheduled flights after 2030. Battery-powered aircraft are likely to enter the market after 2035.<a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a> Under CORSIA, flight operators can purchase <a href="Carbon_offset" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon offset">carbon offsets</a> to cover their emissions above 2019 levels. CORSIA will be compulsory from 2027.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agriculture,_forestry_and_land_use">Agriculture, forestry and land use</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture">Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture</a>, <a href="Environmental_impact_of_meat_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of meat production">Environmental impact of meat production</a>, and <a href="Sustainable_agriculture" title="Sustainable agriculture">Sustainable agriculture</a></div>

Almost 20% of greenhouse gas emissions come from the agriculture and forestry sector.<a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a> To significantly reduce these emissions, annual investments in the agriculture sector need to increase to $260 billion by 2030. The potential benefits from these investments are estimated at $4.3 trillion by 2030, offering a substantial economic return of 16-to-1.<a href="#cite_note-239">[239]</a>: 7–8

Mitigation measures in the food system can be divided into four categories. These are demand-side changes, ecosystem protections, mitigation on farms, and mitigation in <a href="Supply_chains" class="mw-redirect" title="Supply chains">supply chains</a>. On the demand side, limiting <a href="Food_waste" class="mw-redirect" title="Food waste">food waste</a> is an effective way to reduce food emissions. Changes to a diet less reliant on animal products such as <a href="Plant-based_diets" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant-based diets">plant-based diets</a> are also effective.<a href="#cite_note-UNEP-2022-13">[13]</a>: XXV

With 21% of global methane emissions, cattle are a major driver of global warming.<a href="#cite_note-Olivier-2020-240">[240]</a>: 6 When rainforests are cut and the land is converted for grazing, the impact is even higher. In Brazil, producing 1 kg of beef can result in the emission of up to 335 kg CO2-eq.<a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a>

Increasing the milk yield of dairy cows has been shown to reduce emissions.<a href="#cite_note-242">[242]</a>

Other livestock, manure management and rice cultivation also emit greenhouse gases, in addition to fossil fuel combustion in agriculture.

Important mitigation options for reducing the greenhouse gas emissions from livestock include genetic selection,<a href="#cite_note-243">[243]</a><a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a> introduction of <a href="Methanotroph" title="Methanotroph">methanotrophic bacteria</a> into the rumen,<a href="#cite_note-245">[245]</a><a href="#cite_note-246">[246]</a> vaccines, feeds,<a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a> diet modification and grazing management.<a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a><a href="#cite_note-249">[249]</a><a href="#cite_note-250">[250]</a> Other options are diet changes towards <a href="Ruminant" title="Ruminant">ruminant</a>-free alternatives, such as <a href="Milk_substitute" title="Milk substitute">milk substitutes</a> and <a href="Meat_analogue" class="mw-redirect" title="Meat analogue">meat analogues</a>. Non-ruminant livestock, such as poultry, emit far fewer GHGs.<a href="#cite_note-251">[251]</a>

It is possible to cut methane emissions in rice cultivation by improved water management, combining dry seeding and one drawdown, or executing a <a href="Alternate_wetting_and_drying" title="Alternate wetting and drying">sequence of wetting and drying</a>. This results in emission reductions of up to 90% compared to full flooding and even increased yields.<a href="#cite_note-252">[252]</a>

Reducing the usage of <a href="Fertilizer#Nitrogen_fertilizers" title="Fertilizer">nitrogen fertilizers</a> through <a href="Nutrient_management" title="Nutrient management">nutrient management</a> could avoid nitrous oxide emissions equal to 2.77 - 11.48 gigatons of carbon dioxide from 2020 to 2050.<a href="#cite_note-253">[253]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Industry">Industry</h3></div>

<div class="smooth-pie-legend-container"><div class="smooth-pie-caption">Global <a href="List_of_countries_by_carbon_dioxide_emissions" title="List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions">carbon dioxide emissions</a> by country in 2023:</div>

<li>China (31.8%)</li>

<li>United States (14.4%)</li>

<li>European Union (4.90%)</li>

<li>India (9.50%)</li>

<li>Russia (5.80%)</li>

<li>Japan (3.50%)</li>

<li>Other (30.1%)</li>

</ol>

</div>

</div></div></div>

Industry is the largest emitter of greenhouse gases when direct and indirect emissions are included. <a href="Electrification" title="Electrification">Electrification</a> can reduce emissions from industry. <a href="Green_hydrogen" title="Green hydrogen">Green hydrogen</a> can play a major role in energy-intensive industries for which electricity is not an option. Further mitigation options involve the steel and cement industry, which can switch to a less polluting production process. Products can be made with less material to reduce emission-intensity and industrial processes can be made more efficient. Finally, <a href="Circular_economy" title="Circular economy">circular economy</a> measures reduce the need for new materials. This also saves on emissions that would have been released from the mining of collecting of those materials.<a href="#cite_note-UNEP-2022-13">[13]</a>: 43

The decarbonisation of cement production requires new technologies, and therefore investment in innovation.<a href="#cite_note-254">[254]</a> Bioconcrete is one possibility to reduce emissions.<a href="#cite_note-255">[255]</a> But no technology for mitigation is yet mature. So CCS will be necessary at least in the short-term.<a href="#cite_note-256">[256]</a>

Another sector with a significant carbon footprint is the steel sector, which is responsible for about 7% of global emissions.<a href="#cite_note-Renewable_Reads-257">[257]</a> Emissions can be reduced by using <a href="Electric_arc_furnaces" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric arc furnaces">electric arc furnaces</a> to melt and recycle scrap steel. To produce virgin steel without emissions, <a href="Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnaces</a> could be replaced by hydrogen <a href="Direct_reduced_iron" title="Direct reduced iron">direct reduced iron</a> and <a href="Electric_arc_furnace" title="Electric arc furnace">electric arc furnaces</a>. Alternatively, carbon capture and storage solutions can be used.<a href="#cite_note-Renewable_Reads-257">[257]</a>

Coal, gas and oil production often come with significant methane leakage.<a href="#cite_note-Krane-2022-258">[258]</a> In the early 2020s some governments recognised the scale of the problem and introduced regulations.<a href="#cite_note-259">[259]</a> <a href="Methane_leaks" class="mw-redirect" title="Methane leaks">Methane leaks</a> at oil and gas wells and processing plants are cost-effective to fix in countries which can easily trade gas internationally.<a href="#cite_note-Krane-2022-258">[258]</a> There are leaks in countries where gas is cheap; such as Iran,<a href="#cite_note-260">[260]</a> Russia,<a href="#cite_note-261">[261]</a> and Turkmenistan.<a href="#cite_note-262">[262]</a> Nearly all this can be stopped by replacing old components and preventing routine flaring.<a href="#cite_note-Krane-2022-258">[258]</a> <a href="Coalbed_methane" title="Coalbed methane">Coalbed methane</a> may continue leaking even after the mine has been closed. But it can be captured by drainage and/or ventilation systems.<a href="#cite_note-263">[263]</a> Fossil fuel firms do not always have financial incentives to tackle methane leakage.<a href="#cite_note-264">[264]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Co-benefits">Co-benefits</h2></div>

Co-benefits of climate change mitigation, also often referred to as ancillary benefits, were firstly dominated in the scientific literature by studies that describe how lower GHG emissions lead to better air quality and consequently impact human health positively.<a href="#cite_note-265">[265]</a><a href="#cite_note-266">[266]</a> The scope of co-benefits research expanded to its economic, social, ecological and political implications.

Positive secondary effects that occur from climate mitigation and <a href="Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adaptation</a> measures have been mentioned in research since the 1990s.<a href="#cite_note-267">[267]</a><a href="#cite_note-268">[268]</a> The IPCC first mentioned the role of co-benefits in 2001, followed by its fourth and fifth assessment cycle stressing improved working environment, reduced waste, health benefits and reduced capital expenditures.<a href="#cite_note-269">[269]</a> In the early 2000s the <a href="OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a> was further fostering its efforts in promoting ancillary benefits.<a href="#cite_note-270">[270]</a>

The IPCC pointed out in 2007: "Co-benefits of GHG mitigation can be an important decision criteria in analyses carried out by policy-makers, but they are often neglected" and added that the co-benefits are "not quantified, monetised or even identified by businesses and decision-makers".<a href="#cite_note-ipcc-271">[271]</a> Appropriate consideration of co-benefits can greatly "influence policy decisions concerning the timing and level of mitigation action", and there can be "significant advantages to the national economy and technical innovation".<a href="#cite_note-ipcc-271">[271]</a>

An analysis of climate action in the UK found that public health benefits are a major component of the total benefits derived from climate action.<a href="#cite_note-272">[272]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Employment_and_economic_development">Employment and economic development</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Renewable_energy#Market_and_industry_trends" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy § Market and industry trends</a></div>

Co-benefits can positively impact employment, industrial development, states' energy independence and energy self-consumption. The deployment of renewable energies can foster job opportunities. Depending on the country and deployment scenario, replacing coal power plants with renewable energy can more than double the number of jobs per average MW capacity.<a href="#cite_note-273">[273]</a> Investments in renewable energies, especially in solar- and wind energy, can boost the value of production.<a href="#cite_note-274">[274]</a> Countries which rely on energy imports can enhance their energy independence and ensure supply security by deploying renewables. National energy generation from renewables lowers the demand for fossil fuel imports which scales up annual economic saving.<a href="#cite_note-275">[275]</a>

The European Commission forecasts a shortage of 180,000 skilled workers in hydrogen production and 66,000 in solar photovoltaic power by 2030.<a href="#cite_note-:2113-276">[276]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Energy_security">Energy security</h3></div>

A higher share of renewables can additionally lead to more <a href="Energy_security" title="Energy security">energy security</a>.<a href="#cite_note-277">[277]</a> Socioeconomic co-benefits have been analysed such as energy access in rural areas and improved rural livelihoods.<a href="#cite_note-278">[278]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-279">[279]</a> Rural areas which are not fully electrified can benefit from the deployment of <a href="Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">renewable energies</a>. Solar-powered mini-grids can remain economically viable, cost-competitive and reduce the number of power cuts. Energy reliability has additional social implications: stable electricity improves the quality of education.<a href="#cite_note-280">[280]</a>

The International Energy Agency (<a href="International_Energy_Agency" title="International Energy Agency">IEA</a>) spelled out the "multiple benefits approach" of <a href="Efficient_energy_use" title="Efficient energy use">energy efficiency</a> while the International Renewable Energy Agency (<a href="International_Renewable_Energy_Agency" title="International Renewable Energy Agency">IRENA</a>) operationalised the list of co-benefits of the renewable energy sector.<a href="#cite_note-281">[281]</a><a href="#cite_note-282">[282]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health_and_well-being">Health and well-being</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health#Benefits_from_climate_change_mitigation_and_adaptation" title="Effects of climate change on human health">Effects of climate change on human health § Benefits from climate change mitigation and adaptation</a></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_coal_industry" title="Health and environmental impact of the coal industry">Health and environmental impact of the coal industry</a> and <a href="Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_petroleum_industry" title="Health and environmental impact of the petroleum industry">Health and environmental impact of the petroleum industry</a></div>

The health benefits from climate change mitigation are significant. Potential measures can not only mitigate future health impacts from climate change but also improve health directly.<a href="#cite_note-283">[283]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto-284">[284]</a> Climate change mitigation is interconnected with various health co-benefits, such as those from reduced <a href="Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">air pollution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-auto-284">[284]</a> Air pollution generated by fossil fuel combustion is both a major driver of global warming and the cause of a large number of annual deaths. Some estimates are as high as <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">

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</style><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="A review of this and a more nuanced assessment of mortality impacts in terms of contribution to death, rather than number of deceased, may be needed">8.7 million excess deaths during 2018.<a href="#cite_note-285">[285]</a><a href="#cite_note-286">[286]</a> A 2023 study estimated that fossil fuels kill over 5 million people each year, as of 2019,<a href="#cite_note-287">[287]</a> by causing diseases such as <a href="Heart_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart attack">heart attack</a>, <a href="Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a> and <a href="Chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disease" title="Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease">chronic obstructive pulmonary disease</a>.<a href="#cite_note-288">[288]</a> <a href="Particulate_pollution" title="Particulate pollution">Particulate air pollution</a> kills by far the most, followed by <a href="Ground-level_ozone" title="Ground-level ozone">ground-level ozone</a>.<a href="#cite_note-289">[289]</a>

Mitigation policies can also promote healthier diets such as less red meat, more active lifestyles, and increased exposure to green urban spaces.<a href="#cite_note-Romanello-2021-290">[290]</a><a href="#cite_note-291">[291]</a> Access to urban green spaces provides benefits to mental health as well.<a href="#cite_note-Romanello-2021-290">[290]</a>: 18 The increased use of <a href="Green_infrastructure" title="Green infrastructure">green</a> and <a href="Blue_space" title="Blue space">blue infrastructure</a> can reduce the <a href="Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">urban heat island</a> effect. This reduces <a href="Hyperthermia" title="Hyperthermia">heat stress</a> on people.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC-2022-94">[94]</a>: TS-66

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate_change_adaptation">Climate change adaptation</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Climate_change_adaptation#Co-benefits_with_mitigation" title="Climate change adaptation">Climate change adaptation § Co-benefits with mitigation</a></div>

Some mitigation measures have co-benefits in the area of <a href="Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">climate change adaptation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_8-292">[292]</a>: 8–63 This is for example the case for many <a href="Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">nature-based solutions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_4-293">[293]</a>: 4–94 <a href="#cite_note-294">[294]</a>: 6 Examples in the urban context include urban green and blue infrastructure which provide mitigation as well as adaptation benefits. This can be in the form of <a href="Urban_forestry" title="Urban forestry">urban forests</a> and street trees, <a href="Green_roof" title="Green roof">green roofs</a> and <a href="Green_wall" title="Green wall">walls</a>, <a href="Urban_agriculture" title="Urban agriculture">urban agriculture</a> and so forth. The mitigation is achieved through the conservation and expansion of carbon sinks and reduced energy use of buildings. Adaptation benefits come for example through reduced heat stress and flooding risk.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_8-292">[292]</a>: 8–64

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Negative_side_effects">Negative side effects</h2></div>

Mitigation measures can also have negative side effects and risks.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC-2022-94">[94]</a>: TS-133 In agriculture and forestry, mitigation measures can affect biodiversity and ecosystem functioning.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC-2022-94">[94]</a>: TS-87 In renewable energy, mining for metals and minerals can increase threats to conservation areas.<a href="#cite_note-296">[296]</a> There is some research into ways to recycle solar panels and electronic waste. This would create a source for materials so there is no need to mine them.<a href="#cite_note-techrev-297">[297]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lamb_et_al.-298">[298]</a>

Scholars have found that discussions about risks and negative side effects of mitigation measures can lead to deadlock or the feeling that there are insuperable barriers to taking action.<a href="#cite_note-Lamb_et_al.-298">[298]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Costs_and_funding">Costs and funding</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Economics_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Economics of climate change mitigation">Economics of climate change mitigation § Assessing costs and benefits</a>, and <a href="Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economic analysis of climate change</a></div>

Several factors affect mitigation cost estimates. One is the baseline. This is a reference scenario that the alternative mitigation scenario is compared with. Others are the way costs are modelled, and assumptions about future government policy.<a href="#cite_note-299">[299]</a>: 622 Cost estimates for mitigation for specific regions depend on the quantity of emissions allowed for that region in future, as well as the timing of interventions.<a href="#cite_note-300">[300]</a>: 90

Mitigation costs will vary according to how and when emissions are cut. Early, well-planned action will minimise the costs.<a href="#cite_note-stern-147">[147]</a> Globally, the benefits of keeping warming under 2 °C exceed the costs,<a href="#cite_note-Sampedro-2020-301">[301]</a> which according to <a href="The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a> are affordable.<a href="#cite_note-302">[302]</a>

Economists estimate the cost of climate change mitigation at between 1% and 2% of <a href="Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Rhys-2019-303">[303]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kotz2024-304">[304]</a> While this is a large sum, it is still far less than the subsidies governments provide to the ailing fossil fuel industry. The <a href="International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">International Monetary Fund</a> estimated this at more than $5 trillion per year.<a href="#cite_note-305">[305]</a><a href="#cite_note-Teske-2019-44">[44]</a>

Another estimate says that financial flows for climate mitigation and adaptation are going to be over $800 billion per year. These financial requirements are predicted to exceed $4 trillion per year by 2030.<a href="#cite_note-306">[306]</a><a href="#cite_note-307">[307]</a>

Globally, limiting warming to 2 °C may result in higher economic benefits than economic costs.<a href="#cite_note-308">[308]</a>: 300 The economic repercussions of mitigation vary widely across regions and households, depending on policy design and level of <a href="International_cooperation" class="mw-redirect" title="International cooperation">international cooperation</a>. Delayed global cooperation increases policy costs across regions, especially in those that are relatively carbon intensive at present. Pathways with uniform carbon values show higher mitigation costs in more carbon-intensive regions, in fossil-fuels exporting regions and in poorer regions. Aggregate quantifications expressed in GDP or monetary terms undervalue the economic effects on households in poorer countries. The actual effects on welfare and well-being are comparatively larger.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_3-309">[309]</a>

<a href="Cost%E2%80%93benefit_analysis" title="Cost–benefit analysis">Cost–benefit analysis</a> may be unsuitable for analysing climate change mitigation as a whole. But it is still useful for analysing the difference between a 1.5 °C target and 2 °C.<a href="#cite_note-Rhys-2019-303">[303]</a> One way of estimating the cost of reducing emissions is by considering the likely costs of potential technological and output changes. Policymakers can compare the <a href="Marginal_abatement_costs" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginal abatement costs">marginal abatement costs</a> of different methods to assess the cost and amount of possible abatement over time. The marginal abatement costs of the various measures will differ by country, by sector, and over time.<a href="#cite_note-stern-147">[147]</a>

<a href="Eco-tariff" title="Eco-tariff">Eco-tariffs</a> on only imports contribute to reduced global export <a href="Competition_(economics)" title="Competition (economics)">competitiveness</a> and to <a href="Deindustrialisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Deindustrialisation">deindustrialisation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-o344-310">[310]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Avoided_costs_of_climate_change_effects">Avoided costs of climate change effects</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Economic_impacts_of_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic impacts of climate change">Economic impacts of climate change</a></div>

It is possible to avoid some of the costs of the <a href="Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">effects of climate change</a> by limiting climate change. According to the <a href="Stern_Review" title="Stern Review">Stern Review</a>, inaction can be as high as the equivalent of losing at least 5% of global gross domestic product (GDP) each year, now and forever. This can be up to 20% of GDP or more when including a wider range of risks and impacts. But mitigating climate change will only cost about 2% of GDP. Also it may not be a good idea from a financial perspective to delay significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions.<a href="#cite_note-311">[311]</a><a href="#cite_note-312">[312]</a>

Mitigation solutions are often evaluated in terms of costs and greenhouse gas reduction potentials. This fails to take into account the direct effects on human well-being.<a href="#cite_note-313">[313]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Distributing_emissions_abatement_costs">Distributing emissions abatement costs</h3></div>

Mitigation at the speed and scale required to limit warming to 2 °C or below implies deep economic and structural changes. These raise multiple types of distributional concerns across regions, income classes and sectors.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_3-309">[309]</a>

There have been different proposals on how to allocate responsibility for cutting emissions.<a href="#cite_note-banuri-314">[314]</a>: 103 These include <a href="Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">egalitarianism</a>, <a href="Basic_needs" title="Basic needs">basic needs</a> according to a minimum level of consumption, proportionality and the <a href="Polluter_pays_principle" title="Polluter pays principle">polluter-pays principle</a>. A specific proposal is "equal per capita entitlements".<a href="#cite_note-banuri-314">[314]</a>: 106 This approach has two categories. In the first category, emissions are allocated according to national population. In the second category, emissions are allocated in a way that attempts to account for historical or cumulative emissions.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Funding">Funding</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Climate_finance" title="Climate finance">Climate finance</a> and <a href="Economics_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Economics of climate change mitigation">Economics of climate change mitigation § Finance</a></div>

In order to reconcile economic development with mitigating carbon emissions, developing countries need particular support. This would be both financial and technical. The IPCC found that accelerated support would also tackle inequities in financial and economic vulnerability to climate change.<a href="#cite_note-315">[315]</a> One way to achieve this is the Kyoto Protocol's <a href="Clean_Development_Mechanism" title="Clean Development Mechanism">Clean Development Mechanism</a> (CDM).

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Policies">Policies</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="National_policies">National policies</h3></div>

Climate change mitigation policies can have a large and complex impact on the socio-economic status of individuals and countries This can be both positive and negative.<a href="#cite_note-316">[316]</a> It is important to design policies well and make them inclusive. Otherwise climate change mitigation measures can impose higher financial costs on poor households.<a href="#cite_note-317">[317]</a>

An evaluation was conducted on 1,500 climate policy interventions made between 1998 and 2022.<a href="#cite_note-Stechemesser2024-318">[318]</a> The interventions took place in 41 countries and across 6 continents, which together contributed 81% of the world's total emissions as of 2019. The evaluation found 63 successful interventions that resulted in significant emission reductions; the total CO2 release averted by these interventions was between 0.6 and 1.8 billion metric tonnes. The study focused on interventions with at least 4.5% emission reductions, but the researchers noted that meeting the reductions required by the Paris Agreement would require 23 billion metric tonnes per year. Generally, carbon pricing was found to be most effective in <a href="Developed_country" title="Developed country">developed countries</a>, while regulation was most effective in the <a href="Developing_country" title="Developing country">developing countries</a>. Complementary policy mixes benefited from synergies, and were mostly found to be more effective interventions than the implementation of isolated policies.<a href="#cite_note-319">[319]</a><a href="#cite_note-320">[320]</a><a href="#cite_note-The_Boston_Globe_9-4-2024-321">[321]</a>

The <a href="OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a> recognise 48 distinct climate mitigation policies suitable for implementation at national level. Broadly, these can be categorised into three types: market based instruments, non market based instruments and other policies.<a href="#cite_note-capmf-322">[322]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stechemesser2024-318">[318]</a>

<ul><li>Other policies include the Establishing an Independent climate advisory body.<a href="#cite_note-capmf-322">[322]</a></li>

<li>Non market based policies include the Implementing or tighening of Regulatory standards. These set technology or performance standards. They can be effective in addressing the <a href="Market_failure" title="Market failure">market failure</a> of informational barriers.<a href="#cite_note-bashmakov3-323">[323]</a>: 412 </li>

<li>Among market based policies, the carbon price has been found to be the most effective (at least for developed economies),<a href="#cite_note-Stechemesser2024-318">[318]</a> and has its own section below. Additional market based policy instruments for climate change mitigation include:</li></ul>

Emissions taxes These often require domestic emitters to pay a fixed fee or tax for every tonne of CO2 emissions they release into the atmosphere.<a href="#cite_note-bashmakov3-323">[323]</a>: 4123 <a href="Methane_emissions" title="Methane emissions">Methane emissions</a> from fossil fuel extraction are also occasionally taxed.<a href="#cite_note-324">[324]</a> But methane and nitrous oxide from agriculture are typically not subject to tax.<a href="#cite_note-325">[325]</a>

Removing unhelpful subsidies: Many countries provide subsidies for activities that affect emissions. For example, significant <a href="Fossil_fuel_subsidies" title="Fossil fuel subsidies">fossil fuel subsidies</a> are present in many countries.<a href="#cite_note-326">[326]</a> <a href="Fossil_fuel_phase-out#Phase-out_of_fossil_fuel_subsidies" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">Phasing-out fossil fuel subsidies</a> is crucial to address the climate crisis.<a href="#cite_note-327">[327]</a> It must however be done carefully to avoid protests<a href="#cite_note-328">[328]</a> and making poor people poorer.<a href="#cite_note-329">[329]</a>

Creating helpful subsidies: Creating subsidies and financial incentives.<a href="#cite_note-330">[330]</a> One example is <a href="Energy_subsidy" title="Energy subsidy">energy subsidies</a> to support clean generation which is not yet commercially viable such as tidal power.<a href="#cite_note-331">[331]</a>

Tradable permits: A <a href="Carbon_emission_trading" title="Carbon emission trading">permit system</a> can limit emissions.<a href="#cite_note-bashmakov3-323">[323]</a>: 415

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Carbon_pricing">Carbon pricing</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Carbon_price" title="Carbon price">Carbon price</a></div>

Imposing additional costs on greenhouse gas emissions can make fossil fuels less competitive and accelerate investments into low-carbon sources of energy. A growing number of countries raise a fixed <a href="Carbon_tax" title="Carbon tax">carbon tax</a> or participate in dynamic <a href="Carbon_emission_trading" title="Carbon emission trading">carbon emission trading</a> (ETS) systems. In 2021, more than 21% of global greenhouse gas emissions were covered by a carbon price. This was a big increase from earlier due to the introduction of the <a href="Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme" title="Chinese national carbon trading scheme">Chinese national carbon trading scheme</a>.<a href="#cite_note-332">[332]</a>: 23

Trading schemes offer the possibility to limit emission allowances to certain reduction targets. However, an oversupply of allowances keeps most ETS at low price levels around $10 with a low impact. This includes the Chinese ETS which started with $7/tCO2 in 2021.<a href="#cite_note-333">[333]</a> One exception is the <a href="European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme" class="mw-redirect" title="European Union Emission Trading Scheme">European Union Emission Trading Scheme</a> where prices began to rise in 2018. They reached about €80/tCO2 in 2022.<a href="#cite_note-334">[334]</a> This results in additional costs of about €0.04/KWh for coal and €0.02/KWh for gas combustion for electricity, depending on the <a href="Emission_intensity" title="Emission intensity">emission intensity</a>. Industries which have high energy requirements and high emissions often pay only very low energy taxes, or even none at all.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_11-335">[335]</a>: 11–80

While this is often part of national schemes, <a href="Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">carbon offsets and credits</a> can be part of a voluntary market as well such as on the international market. Notably, the company <a href="Blue_Carbon_(company)" title="Blue Carbon (company)">Blue Carbon</a> of the <a href="UAE" class="mw-redirect" title="UAE">UAE</a> has bought ownership over an area equivalent to the United Kingdom to be preserved in return for carbon credits.<a href="#cite_note-336">[336]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="International_agreements">International agreements</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Politics_of_climate_change" title="Politics of climate change">Politics of climate change</a></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Climate_change#Policies_and_politics" title="Climate change">Climate change § Policies and politics</a>, and <a href="Climate_change_mitigation_framework" title="Climate change mitigation framework">Climate change mitigation framework</a></div>

<a href="International_cooperation" class="mw-redirect" title="International cooperation">International cooperation</a> is considered a critical enabler for climate action<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_13-7">[7]</a>: 52 while conflicts generally hamper it.<a href="#cite_note-337">[337]</a> Almost all countries are parties to the <a href="United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a> (UNFCCC).<a href="#cite_note-338">[338]</a><a href="#cite_note-339">[339]</a> The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilise atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases at a level that would prevent dangerous human interference with the climate system.<a href="#cite_note-340">[340]</a>

Although not designed for this purpose, the <a href="Montreal_Protocol" title="Montreal Protocol">Montreal Protocol</a> has benefited climate change mitigation efforts.<a href="#cite_note-341">[341]</a> The Montreal Protocol is an international treaty that has successfully reduced emissions of <a href="Ozone-depleting_substance" class="mw-redirect" title="Ozone-depleting substance">ozone-depleting substances</a> such as <a href="Chlorofluorocarbon" title="Chlorofluorocarbon">CFCs</a>. These are also greenhouse gases.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Paris_Agreement">Paris Agreement</h4></div>

<div class="excerpt-block"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a>.[<a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paris_Agreement&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt">

The <a href="Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a> (also called the Paris Accords or Paris Climate Accords) is an international treaty on <a href="Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> that was signed in 2016.<a href="#cite_note-Paris_Agreement_:0-342">[342]</a> The treaty covers climate change mitigation, <a href="Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adaptation</a>, and <a href="Climate_finance" title="Climate finance">finance</a>. The Paris Agreement was negotiated by 196 <a href="Party_(law)" title="Party (law)">parties</a> at the <a href="2015_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference" title="2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference">2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference</a> near <a href="Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, France. As of February 2023, 195 members of the <a href="United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a> (UNFCCC) are parties to the agreement. Of the three UNFCCC member states which have not <a href="Ratification" title="Ratification">ratified</a> the agreement, the only major <a href="List_of_countries_by_greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="List of countries by greenhouse gas emissions">emitter</a> is <a href="Climate_change_in_Iran" title="Climate change in Iran">Iran</a>. The United States, the second largest emitter, <a href="United_States_and_the_Paris_Agreement" title="United States and the Paris Agreement">withdrew from the agreement</a> in 2020,<a href="#cite_note-Paris_Agreement_UScom-343">[343]</a> rejoined in 2021,<a href="#cite_note-Paris_Agreement_:20-344">[344]</a> and announced its <a href="Executive_Order_14162" title="Executive Order 14162">withdrawal again in 2025</a>.<a href="#cite_note-345">[345]</a></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Climate_change_mitigation_framework" title="Climate change mitigation framework">Climate change mitigation framework</a>, <a href="History_of_climate_change_policy_and_politics" title="History of climate change policy and politics">History of climate change policy and politics</a>, <a href="Kyoto_Protocol#Chronology" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol § Chronology</a>, and <a href="Paris_Agreement#Development" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement § Development</a></div>

Historically efforts to deal with climate change have taken place at a multinational level. They involve attempts to reach a consensus decision at the United Nations, under the <a href="United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a> (UNFCCC).<a href="#cite_note-346">[346]</a> This is the dominant approach historically of engaging as many international governments as possible in taking action on a worldwide public issue. The <a href="Montreal_Protocol" title="Montreal Protocol">Montreal Protocol</a> in 1987 is a precedent that this approach can work. But some critics say the top-down framework of only utilising the UNFCCC consensus approach is ineffective. They put forward counter-proposals of bottom-up governance. At this same time this would lessen the emphasis on the UNFCCC.<a href="#cite_note-Cole-2015-347">[347]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sabel-2017-348">[348]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zefferman-2018-349">[349]</a>

The <a href="Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a> to the UNFCCC adopted in 1997 set out legally binding emission reduction commitments for the "Annex 1" countries.<a href="#cite_note-350">[350]</a>: 817 The Protocol defined three international policy instruments ("<a href="Flexibility_mechanisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Flexibility mechanisms">Flexibility Mechanisms</a>") which could be used by the Annex 1 countries to meet their emission reduction commitments. According to Bashmakov, use of these instruments could significantly reduce the costs for Annex 1 countries in meeting their emission reduction commitments.<a href="#cite_note-bashmakov-351">[351]</a>: 402

The Paris Agreement reached in 2015 succeeded the <a href="Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a> which expired in 2020. <a href="List_of_Kyoto_Protocol_signatories" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Kyoto Protocol signatories">Countries that ratified the Kyoto protocol</a> committed to reduce their emissions of carbon dioxide and five other greenhouse gases, or engage in <a href="Carbon_emissions_trading" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon emissions trading">carbon emissions trading</a> if they maintain or increase emissions of these gases.

In 2015, the UNFCCC's "structured expert dialogue" came to the conclusion that, "in some regions and vulnerable ecosystems, high risks are projected even for warming above 1.5 °C".<a href="#cite_note-352">[352]</a> Together with the strong diplomatic voice of the poorest countries and the island nations in the Pacific, this expert finding was the driving force leading to the decision of the 2015 <a href="2015_United_Nations_Climate_Change_Conference" title="2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference">Paris Climate Conference</a> to lay down this 1.5 °C long-term target on top of the existing 2 °C goal.<a href="#cite_note-353">[353]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Barriers">Barriers</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Economic_analysis_of_climate_change#Economic_barriers_to_addressing_climate_change_mitigation" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economic analysis of climate change § Economic barriers to addressing climate change mitigation</a>, <a href="Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Climate change denial</a>, <a href="Public_opinion_on_climate_change" title="Public opinion on climate change">Public opinion on climate change</a>, and <a href="Sustainability#Barriers" title="Sustainability">Sustainability § Barriers</a></div>

There are individual, institutional and market barriers to achieving climate change mitigation.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_5-95">[95]</a>: 5–71 They differ for all the different mitigation options, regions and societies.

Difficulties with <a href="Carbon_accounting" title="Carbon accounting">accounting for carbon dioxide removal</a> can act as economic barriers. This would apply to BECCS (<a href="Bioenergy_with_carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage">bioenergy with carbon capture and storage</a>).<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_6-43">[43]</a>: 6–42 The strategies that companies follow can act as a barrier. But they can also accelerate decarbonisation.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_5-95">[95]</a>: 5–84

In order to decarbonise societies the state needs to play a predominant role. This is because it requires a massive coordination effort.<a href="#cite_note-Berg-2020-354">[354]</a>: 213 This strong government role can only work well if there is social cohesion, political stability and trust.<a href="#cite_note-Berg-2020-354">[354]</a>: 213

For land-based mitigation options, finance is a major barrier. Other barriers are cultural values, governance, accountability and institutional capacity.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_7-123">[123]</a>: 7–5

Developing countries face further barriers to mitigation.<a href="#cite_note-355">[355]</a>

<ul><li>The cost of capital increased in the early 2020s.<a href="#cite_note-356">[356]</a> A lack of available capital and finance is common in developing countries.<a href="#cite_note-357">[357]</a> Together with the absence of regulatory standards, this barrier supports the proliferation of inefficient equipment.</li>

<li>There are also financial and <a href="Capacity_building" title="Capacity building">capacity</a> barrier in many of these countries.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_5-95">[95]</a>: 97 </li></ul>

One study estimates that only 0.12% of all funding for climate-related research goes on the social science of climate change mitigation.<a href="#cite_note-Overland-2020-358">[358]</a> Vastly more funding goes on natural science studies of climate change. Considerable sums also go on studies of the impact of climate change and adaptation to it.<a href="#cite_note-Overland-2020-358">[358]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commitments_to_divest">Commitments to divest</h3></div>

More than 1000 organisations with investments worth US$8 trillion have made commitments to <a href="Fossil_fuel_divestment" title="Fossil fuel divestment">fossil fuel divestment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-360">[360]</a> Socially responsible investing funds allow investors to invest in funds that meet high <a href="Environmental%2C_social_and_corporate_governance" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental, social and corporate governance">environmental, social and corporate governance</a> (ESG) standards.<a href="#cite_note-361">[361]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impacts_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic">Impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_environment#Climate_change" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the environment">Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the environment § Climate change</a></div>

The <a href="COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a> led some governments to shift their focus away from climate action, at least temporarily.<a href="#cite_note-362">[362]</a> This obstacle to environmental policy efforts may have contributed to slowed investment in green energy technologies. The economic slowdown resulting from COVID-19 added to this effect.<a href="#cite_note-UN-363">[363]</a><a href="#cite_note-9mMFi-364">[364]</a>

In 2020, carbon dioxide emissions fell by 6.4% or 2.3 billion tonnes globally.<a href="#cite_note-Tollefson-2021-365">[365]</a> Greenhouse gas emissions rebounded later in the pandemic as many countries began lifting restrictions. The direct impact of pandemic policies had a negligible long-term impact on climate change.<a href="#cite_note-Tollefson-2021-365">[365]</a><a href="#cite_note-effectspaper-366">[366]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples_by_country">Examples by country</h2></div>

<div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:442px;max-width:442px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:436px;max-width:436px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:244px;overflow:hidden"></div><div class="thumbcaption">Greenhouse gas emissions per person in the highest-emitting countries.<a href="#cite_note-GlobalCarbonAtlas_Territorial_MtCO2-367">[367]</a> Though China has the greatest total annual carbon dioxide emissions, the U.S. and a few other high-emitting countries exceed China in per capita emissions.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:2px;max-width:2px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:244px;overflow:hidden">[[file:2021 Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions per person versus GDP per person - scatter plot.svg|0px|alt=]]</div><div class="thumbcaption">Richer <a href="Developed_country" title="Developed country">(developed)</a> countries emit more CO2 per person than poorer <a href="Developing_country" title="Developing country">(developing)</a> countries.<a href="#cite_note-WashPost_20230301-368">[368]</a> Emissions are roughly proportional to <a href="Gross_domestic_product" title="Gross domestic product">GDP</a> per person, though the rate of increase diminishes with average GDP/pp of about $10,000.</div></div></div></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Climate_change_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change in the United States">Climate change in the United States</a></div>

<div class="excerpt-block"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States#Federal_Policies" title="Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States">Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States § Federal Policies</a>.[<a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States&action=edit#Federal_Policies">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt">

The United States government has held shifting attitudes toward addressing greenhouse gas emissions. The <a href="Presidency_of_George_W._Bush" title="Presidency of George W. Bush">George W. Bush administration</a> opted not to sign the <a href="Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States_Dessai_2001_5-369">[369]</a> but the <a href="Obama_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Obama administration">Obama administration</a> entered the <a href="Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a>.<a href="#cite_note-370">[370]</a> The <a href="First_presidency_of_Donald_Trump" title="First presidency of Donald Trump">Trump administration</a> withdrew from the <a href="Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a> while increasing the export of <a href="Crude_oil" class="mw-redirect" title="Crude oil">crude oil</a> and <a href="Gasoline" title="Gasoline">gas</a>, making the <a href="United_States" title="United States">United States</a> the largest producer.<a href="#cite_note-371">[371]</a>

In 2021, the <a href="Presidency_of_Joe_Biden" title="Presidency of Joe Biden">Biden administration</a> committed to reducing emissions to half of 2005 levels by 2030.<a href="#cite_note-372">[372]</a> In 2022, <a href="Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">President Biden</a> signed the <a href="Inflation_Reduction_Act_of_2022" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflation Reduction Act of 2022">Inflation Reduction Act</a> into law, which is estimated to provide around $375 billion over 10 years to fight climate change.<a href="#cite_note-373">[373]</a> As of 2022 the <a href="Social_cost_of_carbon" title="Social cost of carbon">social cost of carbon</a> is 51 dollars a tonne whereas academics say it should be more than three times higher.<a href="#cite_note-374">[374]</a></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China">China</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_China" title="Greenhouse gas emissions by China">Greenhouse gas emissions by China</a>, <a href="Climate_change_in_China" title="Climate change in China">Climate change in China</a>, and <a href="Debate_over_China's_economic_responsibilities_for_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Debate over China's economic responsibilities for climate change mitigation">Debate over China's economic responsibilities for climate change mitigation</a></div>

China has committed to peak emissions by 2030 and reach <a href="Net_zero" class="mw-redirect" title="Net zero">net zero</a> by 2060.<a href="#cite_note-375">[375]</a> Warming cannot be limited to 1.5 °C if any <a href="Electricity_sector_in_China#Coal_power" title="Electricity sector in China">coal plants in China</a> (without carbon capture) operate after 2045.<a href="#cite_note-376">[376]</a> The <a href="Chinese_national_carbon_trading_scheme" title="Chinese national carbon trading scheme">Chinese national carbon trading scheme</a> started in 2021.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European_Union">European Union</h3></div>

The <a href="European_Commission" title="European Commission">European Commission</a> estimates that an additional €477 million in annual investment is needed for the European Union to meet its <a href="Fit_for_55" title="Fit for 55">Fit-for-55</a> decarbonisation goals.<a href="#cite_note-:2113-276">[276]</a><a href="#cite_note-377">[377]</a>

In the European Union, government-driven policies and the <a href="European_Green_Deal" title="European Green Deal">European Green Deal</a> have helped position greentech (as an example) as a vital area for venture capital investment. By 2023, venture capital in the EU's greentech sector equalled that of the United States, reflecting a concerted effort to drive innovation and mitigate climate change through targeted financial support.<a href="#cite_note-:2113-276">[276]</a><a href="#cite_note-378">[378]</a> The European Green Deal has fostered policies that contributed to a 30% rise in venture capital for greentech companies in the EU from 2021 to 2023, despite a downturn in other sectors during the same period.<a href="#cite_note-:1-379">[379]</a>

While overall venture capital investment in the EU remains about six times lower than in the United States, the greentech sector has closed this gap significantly, attracting substantial funding. Key areas benefitting from increased investments are energy storage, circular economy initiatives, and agricultural technology. This is supported by the EU's ambitious goal to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by at least 55% by 2030.<a href="#cite_note-:1-379">[379]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related_approaches">Related approaches</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relationship_with_solar_radiation_modification_(SRM)">Relationship with solar radiation modification (SRM)</h3></div>

While <a href="Solar_geoengineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar geoengineering">solar radiation modification</a> (SRM) could reduce surface temperatures, it temporarily masks climate change rather than addressing the root cause, which is greenhouse gases.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_14-380">[380]</a>: 14–56 SRM would work by altering how much solar radiation the Earth absorbs.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_14-380">[380]</a>: 14–56 Examples include reducing the amount of sunlight reaching the surface, reducing the optical thickness and lifetime of clouds, and changing the ability of the surface to reflect radiation.<a href="#cite_note-381">[381]</a> The <a href="Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">IPCC</a> describes SRM as a climate risk reduction strategy or supplementary option rather than a climate mitigation option.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_14-380">[380]</a>

The terminology in this area is still evolving. Experts sometimes use the term geoengineering or <a href="Climate_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate engineering">climate engineering</a> in the scientific literature for both CDR or SRM, if the techniques are used at a global scale.<a href="#cite_note-AR6_WGIII_Ch_1-15">[15]</a>: 6–11 IPCC reports no longer use the terms geoengineering or climate engineering.<a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_WGI_Glossary-16">[16]</a>

<ul><li><a href="Carbon_budget" title="Carbon budget">Carbon budget</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">Carbon offsets and credits</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_price" title="Carbon price">Carbon price</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_movement" title="Climate movement">Climate movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Climate change denial</a></li>

<li><a href="Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">Tipping points in the climate system</a></li></ul>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

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<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFLeal_FilhoKovalevaPimenta_DinisLuetz2025" class="citation book cs1">Leal Filho, Walter; Kovaleva, Marina; Pimenta Dinis, Maria Alzira; Luetz, Johannes M.; Alves, Fátima; Nagy, Gustavo J.; Yaffa, Sidat; Ayal, Desalegn Yayeh; Kalungu, Jokastah, eds. (2025). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-031-85217-6">Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation in Practice</a>. Climate Change Management. Cham: Springer. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-031-85217-6">10.1007/978-3-031-85217-6</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-031-85217-6</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLacknerSajjadiChen2022" class="citation book cs1">Lackner, Maximilian; Sajjadi, Baharak; Chen, Wei-Yin, eds. (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/referencework/10.1007/978-3-030-72579-2">Handbook of Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation</a> (3rd ed.). New York: Springer. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-030-72579-2">10.1007/978-3-030-72579-2</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-030-72579-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chaseday.com/best-books-on-climate-mitigation/">Climate Mitigation Best Practices</a>. ChaseDay Publishing. 2025. Retrieved 2025-07-07. <q>Case study-based volume; citation details may vary</q></cite></li></ul>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Climate_change567" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Climate_change567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Overview567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Overview</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes of climate change</a></li>

<li><a href="Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects of climate change</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Climate change adaptation</a></li>

<li>By country and region</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Causes567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Climate_system" title="Climate system">Climate system</a></li>

<li><a href="Greenhouse_effect" title="Greenhouse effect">Greenhouse effect</a> (<a href="Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth's_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere">Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Scientific_consensus_on_climate_change" title="Scientific consensus on climate change">Scientific consensus on climate change</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation</a></li>

<li><a href="Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuel</a></li>

<li><a href="Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">Greenhouse gases</a></li>

<li><a href="Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a>

<ul><li><a href="Carbon_accounting" title="Carbon accounting">Carbon accounting</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_leakage" title="Carbon leakage">Carbon leakage</a></li>

<li><a href="Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_agriculture" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture">from agriculture</a></li>

<li><a href="Greenhouse_gas_emissions_from_wetlands" title="Greenhouse gas emissions from wetlands">from wetlands</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="World_energy_supply_and_consumption" title="World energy supply and consumption">World energy supply and consumption</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_climate_change_policy_and_politics" title="History of climate change policy and politics">History of climate change policy and politics</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_climate_change_science" title="History of climate change science">History of climate change science</a></li>

<li><a href="Svante_Arrhenius" title="Svante Arrhenius">Svante Arrhenius</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Hansen" title="James Hansen">James Hansen</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_David_Keeling" title="Charles David Keeling">Charles David Keeling</a></li>

<li><a href="United_Nations_Climate_Change_conference" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Climate Change conference">United Nations Climate Change conferences</a></li>

<li>Years in climate change

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Effects_and_issues567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects and issues</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Physical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abrupt_climate_change" title="Abrupt climate change">Abrupt climate change</a></li>

<li><a href="Anoxic_event" title="Anoxic event">Anoxic event</a></li>

<li><a href="Arctic_methane_emissions" title="Arctic methane emissions">Arctic methane emissions</a></li>

<li><a href="Arctic_sea_ice_decline" title="Arctic sea ice decline">Arctic sea ice decline</a></li>

<li><a href="Atlantic_meridional_overturning_circulation" title="Atlantic meridional overturning circulation">Atlantic meridional overturning circulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Drought" title="Drought">Drought</a></li>

<li><a href="Extreme_weather" title="Extreme weather">Extreme weather</a></li>

<li><a href="Flood" title="Flood">Flood</a>

<ul><li><a href="Coastal_flooding" title="Coastal flooding">Coastal flooding</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="Marine_heatwave" title="Marine heatwave">Marine</a></li>

<li><a href="Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">Urban heat island</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Effects_of_climate_change_on_oceans" title="Effects of climate change on oceans">Oceans</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">acidification</a></li>

<li><a href="Ocean_deoxygenation" title="Ocean deoxygenation">deoxygenation</a></li>

<li><a href="Ocean_heat_content" title="Ocean heat content">heat content</a></li>

<li><a href="Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature</a></li>

<li><a href="Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">stratification</a></li>

<li><a href="Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">temperature</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li>

<li><a href="Permafrost#Impacts_of_climate_change" title="Permafrost">Permafrost thaw</a></li>

<li><a href="Retreat_of_glaciers_since_1850" title="Retreat of glaciers since 1850">Retreat of glaciers since 1850</a></li>

<li><a href="Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li>

<li><a href="Season_creep" title="Season creep">Season creep</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_sensitivity" title="Climate sensitivity">Climate sensitivity</a></li>

<li><a href="Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">Tipping points in the climate system</a></li>

<li><a href="Tropical_cyclones_and_climate_change" title="Tropical cyclones and climate change">Tropical cyclones</a></li>

<li><a href="Effects_of_climate_change_on_the_water_cycle" title="Effects of climate change on the water cycle">Water cycle</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_and_wildfires" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and wildfires">Wildfires</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Flora and fauna</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Effects_of_climate_change_on_biomes" title="Effects of climate change on biomes">Biomes</a>

<ul><li><a href="Mass_mortality_event" title="Mass mortality event">Mass mortality event</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_and_birds" title="Climate change and birds">Birds</a></li>

<li><a href="Extinction_risk_from_climate_change" title="Extinction risk from climate change">Extinction risk</a></li>

<li><a href="Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_and_invasive_species" title="Climate change and invasive species">Invasive species</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_impact_on_marine_life#Climate_change" title="Human impact on marine life">Marine life</a></li>

<li><a href="Effects_of_climate_change_on_plant_biodiversity" title="Effects of climate change on plant biodiversity">Plant biodiversity</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Social and economic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Agriculture</a>

<ul><li><a href="Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock" title="Effects of climate change on livestock">Livestock</a></li>

<li><a href="Multiple_breadbasket_failure" title="Multiple breadbasket failure">Multi-breadbasket failure</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">In the United States</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_and_children" title="Climate change and children">Children</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_and_cities" title="Climate change and cities">Cities</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_and_civilizational_collapse" title="Climate change and civilizational collapse">Civilizational collapse</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_and_crime" title="Climate change and crime">Crime</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_areas_depopulated_due_to_climate_change" title="List of areas depopulated due to climate change">Depopulation of settlements</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_landmarks_destroyed_or_damaged_by_climate_change" title="List of landmarks destroyed or damaged by climate change">Destruction of cultural heritage</a></li>

<li><a href="Disability_and_climate_change" title="Disability and climate change">Disability</a></li>

<li><a href="Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economic impacts</a>

<ul><li><a href="Climate_change_and_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and insurance in the United States">U.S. insurance industry</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_and_fisheries" title="Climate change and fisheries">Fisheries</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_and_gender" title="Climate change and gender">Gender</a></li>

<li><a href="Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health" title="Effects of climate change on human health">Health</a>

<ul><li><a href="Effects_of_climate_change_on_mental_health" title="Effects of climate change on mental health">Mental health</a></li>

<li><a href="Effects_of_climate_change_on_health_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Effects of climate change on health in the United Kingdom">In the United Kingdom</a></li>

<li><a href="Effects_of_climate_change_on_health_in_the_Philippines" title="Effects of climate change on health in the Philippines">In the Philippines</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Human_rights_and_climate_change" title="Human rights and climate change">Human rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_and_Indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change and Indigenous peoples">Indigenous peoples</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases" title="Climate change and infectious diseases">Infectious diseases</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_migration" title="Climate migration">Migration</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_and_poverty" title="Climate change and poverty">Poverty</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychological_impact_of_climate_change" title="Psychological impact of climate change">Psychological impacts</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_security" title="Climate security">Security and conflict</a></li>

<li><a href="Urban_flooding" title="Urban flooding">Urban flooding</a></li>

<li><a href="Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li>

<li><a href="Water_security" title="Water security">Water security</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">By country and region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Africa" title="Climate change in Africa">Africa</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_in_the_Americas" title="Climate change in the Americas">Americas</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_in_Antarctica" title="Climate change in Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_in_the_Arctic" title="Climate change in the Arctic">Arctic</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_in_Australia" title="Climate change in Australia">Australia</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_in_the_Caribbean" title="Climate change in the Caribbean">Caribbean</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_in_Europe" title="Climate change in Europe">Europe</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_in_the_Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a></li>

<li><a href="Effects_of_climate_change_on_small_island_countries" title="Effects of climate change on small island countries">Small island countries</a></li>

<li>by individual country</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Mitigation567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="Economic_analysis_of_climate_change" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economics and finance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Carbon_budget" title="Carbon budget">Carbon budget</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_emission_trading" title="Carbon emission trading">Carbon emission trading</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">Carbon offsets and credits</a>

<ul><li><a href="Gold_Standard_(carbon_offset_standard)" title="Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)">Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_price" title="Carbon price">Carbon price</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_tax" title="Carbon tax">Carbon tax</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_debt" title="Climate debt">Climate debt</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_finance" title="Climate finance">Climate finance</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_risk_insurance" title="Climate risk insurance">Climate risk insurance</a></li>

<li><a href="Co-benefits_of_climate_change_mitigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-benefits of climate change mitigation">Co-benefits of climate change mitigation</a></li>

<li><a href="Economic_analysis_of_climate_change#Economics_of_climate_change_mitigation" title="Economic analysis of climate change">Economics of climate change mitigation</a></li>

<li><a href="Fossil_fuel_divestment" title="Fossil fuel divestment">Fossil fuel divestment</a></li>

<li><a href="Green_Climate_Fund" title="Green Climate Fund">Green Climate Fund</a></li>

<li><a href="Low-carbon_economy" title="Low-carbon economy">Low-carbon economy</a></li>

<li><a href="Net_zero_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Net zero emissions">Net zero emissions</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Energy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Carbon_capture_and_storage" title="Carbon capture and storage">Carbon capture and storage</a></li>

<li><a href="Energy_transition" title="Energy transition">Energy transition</a>

<ul><li><a href="Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">Fossil fuel phase-out</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear power</a></li>

<li><a href="Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Preserving and enhancing <a href="Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon sinks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Blue_carbon" title="Blue carbon">Blue carbon</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_dioxide_removal" title="Carbon dioxide removal">Carbon dioxide removal</a>

<ul><li><a href="Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">Carbon sequestration</a></li>

<li><a href="Direct_air_capture" title="Direct air capture">Direct air capture</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_farming" title="Carbon farming">Carbon farming</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate-smart_agriculture" title="Climate-smart agriculture">Climate-smart agriculture</a></li>

<li>Forest management

<ul><li><a href="Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_sequestration#Forestry" title="Carbon sequestration">forestry for carbon sequestration</a></li>

<li><a href="Reforestation" title="Reforestation">reforestation</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Land_use%2C_land-use_change%2C_and_forestry" title="Land use, land-use change, and forestry">Land use, land-use change, and forestry</a> (LULUCF and AFOLU)</li>

<li><a href="Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Individual_action_on_climate_change" title="Individual action on climate change">Individual action on climate change</a></li>

<li><a href="Geoengineering" title="Geoengineering">Geoengineering</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society_and_adaptation567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Society and <a href="Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">adaptation</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Business_action_on_climate_change" title="Business action on climate change">Business action</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_action" title="Climate action">Climate action</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_emergency_declaration" title="Climate emergency declaration">Climate emergency declaration</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_movement" title="Climate movement">Climate movement</a>

<ul><li><a href="School_Strike_for_Climate" class="mw-redirect" title="School Strike for Climate">School Strike for Climate</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">Denial</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecological_grief" title="Ecological grief">Ecological grief</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_governance" title="Climate governance">Governance</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_justice" title="Climate justice">Justice</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_litigation" title="Climate change litigation">Litigation</a></li>

<li><a href="Politics_of_climate_change" title="Politics of climate change">Politics</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_opinion_on_climate_change" title="Public opinion on climate change">Public opinion</a></li>

<li><a href="Women_in_climate_change" title="Women in climate change">Women</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="Climate_change_adaptation" title="Climate change adaptation">Adaptation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Climate_change_adaptation_strategies_on_the_German_coast" title="Climate change adaptation strategies on the German coast">Adaptation strategies on the German coast</a></li>

<li><a href="Adaptive_capacity" title="Adaptive capacity">Adaptive capacity</a></li>

<li><a href="Disaster_risk_reduction" title="Disaster risk reduction">Disaster risk reduction</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecosystem-based_adaptation" title="Ecosystem-based adaptation">Ecosystem-based adaptation</a></li>

<li><a href="Flood_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Flood control">Flood control</a></li>

<li><a href="Loss_and_damage_(climate_change)" title="Loss and damage (climate change)">Loss and damage</a></li>

<li><a href="Managed_retreat" title="Managed retreat">Managed retreat</a></li>

<li><a href="Nature-based_solutions" title="Nature-based solutions">Nature-based solutions</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_resilience" title="Climate resilience">Resilience</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_vulnerability" title="Climate change vulnerability">Vulnerability</a></li>

<li><a href="The_Adaptation_Fund" title="The Adaptation Fund">The Adaptation Fund</a></li>

<li><a href="National_Adaptation_Programme_of_Action" title="National Adaptation Programme of Action">National Adaptation Programme of Action</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em"><a href="Climate_communication" title="Climate communication">Communication</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Climate_Change_Performance_Index" title="Climate Change Performance Index">Climate Change Performance Index</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_crisis" title="Climate crisis">Climate crisis (term)</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_spiral" title="Climate spiral">Climate spiral</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_education" title="Climate change education">Education</a></li>

<li><a href="Media_coverage_of_climate_change" title="Media coverage of climate change">Media coverage</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_in_popular_culture" title="Climate change in popular culture">Popular culture depictions</a>

<li><a href="Climate_fiction" title="Climate fiction">fiction</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_climate_change_video_games" class="mw-redirect" title="List of climate change video games">video games</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Warming_stripes" title="Warming stripes">Warming stripes</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">International agreements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Glasgow_Climate_Pact" title="Glasgow Climate Pact">Glasgow Climate Pact</a></li>

<li><a href="Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a></li>

<li><a href="Paris_Agreement" title="Paris Agreement">Paris Agreement</a>

<ul><li><a href="Cooperative_Mechanisms_under_Article_6_of_the_Paris_Agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement">Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement</a></li>

<li><a href="Nationally_determined_contribution" title="Nationally determined contribution">Nationally determined contributions</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_Development_Goal_13" title="Sustainable Development Goal 13">Sustainable Development Goal 13</a></li>

<li><a href="United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Background_and_theory567" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Background and theory</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Measurements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Global_surface_temperature" title="Global surface temperature">Global surface temperature</a></li>

<li><a href="Instrumental_temperature_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumental temperature record">Instrumental temperature record</a></li>

<li><a href="Proxy_(climate)" title="Proxy (climate)">Proxy</a></li>

<li><a href="Satellite_temperature_measurement" title="Satellite temperature measurement">Satellite temperature measurement</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Albedo" title="Albedo">Albedo</a></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">Carbon cycle</a>

<ul><li><a href="Atmospheric_carbon_cycle" title="Atmospheric carbon cycle">atmospheric</a></li>

<li><a href="Biological_pump" title="Biological pump">biologic</a></li>

<li><a href="Oceanic_carbon_cycle" title="Oceanic carbon cycle">oceanic</a></li>

<li><a href="Permafrost_carbon_cycle" title="Permafrost carbon cycle">permafrost</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">Carbon sink</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_sensitivity" title="Climate sensitivity">Climate sensitivity</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_variability_and_change" title="Climate variability and change">Climate variability and change</a></li>

<li><a href="Cloud_feedback" title="Cloud feedback">Cloud feedback</a></li>

<li><a href="Cloud_forcing" class="mw-redirect" title="Cloud forcing">Cloud forcing</a>

<ul><li><a href="Fixed_anvil_temperature_hypothesis" title="Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis">Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Cryosphere" title="Cryosphere">Cryosphere</a></li>

<li><a href="Earth's_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">Earth's energy budget</a></li>

<li><a href="Extreme_event_attribution" title="Extreme event attribution">Extreme event attribution</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_change_feedbacks" title="Climate change feedbacks">Feedbacks</a></li>

<li><a href="Global_warming_potential" title="Global warming potential">Global warming potential</a></li>

<li><a href="Illustrative_model_of_greenhouse_effect_on_climate_change" title="Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change">Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change</a></li>

<li><a href="Orbital_forcing" title="Orbital forcing">Orbital forcing</a></li>

<li><a href="Radiative_forcing" title="Radiative forcing">Radiative forcing</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10.25em">Research and modelling</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Climate_change_scenario" title="Climate change scenario">Climate change scenario</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_model" title="Climate model">Climate model</a></li>

<li><a href="Coupled_Model_Intercomparison_Project" title="Coupled Model Intercomparison Project">Coupled Model Intercomparison Project</a></li>

<li><a href="Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)</a>

<ul><li><a href="IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC Sixth Assessment Report</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a></li>

<li><a href="Representative_Concentration_Pathway" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">Representative Concentration Pathway</a></li>

<li><a href="Shared_Socioeconomic_Pathways" title="Shared Socioeconomic Pathways">Shared Socioeconomic Pathways</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> <a href="Portal%3AClimate_change" title="Portal:Climate change">Climate change portal</a></li>

<li> Category</li>

<li> <a href="Glossary_of_climate_change" title="Glossary of climate change">Glossary</a></li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Climate_change_by_country9390" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Climate_change_by_country9390" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Climate change by country</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Afghanistan" title="Climate change in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Albania" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Albania">Albania</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Algeria" title="Climate change in Algeria">Algeria</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Angola" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Angola">Angola</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Argentina" title="Climate change in Argentina">Argentina</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Armenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Armenia">Armenia</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Australia" title="Climate change in Australia">Australia</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Austria" title="Climate change in Austria">Austria</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Azerbaijan" title="Climate change in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_the_Bahamas" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Bangladesh" title="Climate change in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Barbados" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Barbados">Barbados</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Belarus" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Belarus">Belarus</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Belgium" title="Climate change in Belgium">Belgium</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Belize" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Belize">Belize</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Benin" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Benin">Benin</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Bhutan" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Bolivia" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Botswana" title="Climate change in Botswana">Botswana</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Brazil" title="Climate change in Brazil">Brazil</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Brunei" title="Climate change in Brunei">Brunei</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Bulgaria" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Burkina_Faso" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Burundi" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Burundi">Burundi</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Cambodia" title="Climate change in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Cameroon" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Canada" title="Climate change in Canada">Canada</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Cape_Verde" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_the_Central_African_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Chad" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Chad">Chad</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Chile" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Chile">Chile</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_China" title="Climate change in China">China</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Colombia" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Colombia">Colombia</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Costa_Rica" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Croatia" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Croatia">Croatia</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Cuba" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Cuba">Cuba</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Cyprus" title="Climate change in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_the_Czech_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Denmark" title="Climate change in Denmark">Denmark</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Djibouti" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Dominica" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Dominica">Dominica</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_the_Dominican_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Ecuador" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Egypt" title="Climate change in Egypt">Egypt</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_El_Salvador" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Equatorial_Guinea" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Eritrea" title="Climate change in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Estonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Estonia">Estonia</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Eswatini" title="Climate change in Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Ethiopia" title="Climate change in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in the Federated States of Micronesia">Federated States of Micronesia</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Fiji" title="Climate change in Fiji">Fiji</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Finland" title="Climate change in Finland">Finland</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_France" title="Climate change in France">France</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Gabon" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Gabon">Gabon</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_the_Gambia" title="Climate change in the Gambia">Gambia</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Georgia_(country)" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Germany" title="Climate change in Germany">Germany</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Ghana" title="Climate change in Ghana">Ghana</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Greece" title="Climate change in Greece">Greece</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Grenada" title="Climate change in Grenada">Grenada</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Guatemala" title="Climate change in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Guinea" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Guinea">Guinea</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Guinea-Bissau" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Guyana" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Guyana">Guyana</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Haiti" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Haiti">Haiti</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Honduras" title="Climate change in Honduras">Honduras</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Hungary" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Hungary">Hungary</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Iceland" title="Climate change in Iceland">Iceland</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_India" title="Climate change in India">India</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Indonesia" title="Climate change in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Iran" title="Climate change in Iran">Iran</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Iraq" title="Climate change in Iraq">Iraq</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Climate change in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Israel" title="Climate change in Israel">Israel</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Italy" title="Climate change in Italy">Italy</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Ivory_Coast" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Jamaica" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Japan" title="Climate change in Japan">Japan</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Jordan" title="Climate change in Jordan">Jordan</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Kazakhstan" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Kenya" title="Climate change in Kenya">Kenya</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Kiribati" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Kosovo" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Kuwait" title="Climate change in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Climate change in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Laos" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Laos">Laos</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Latvia" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Latvia">Latvia</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Lesotho" title="Climate change in Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Liberia" title="Climate change in Liberia">Liberia</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Libya" title="Climate change in Libya">Libya</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Lithuania" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Luxembourg" title="Climate change in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Madagascar" title="Climate change in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Malawi" title="Climate change in Malawi">Malawi</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Malaysia" title="Climate change in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Maldives" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Maldives">Maldives</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Mali" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Mali">Mali</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Malta" title="Climate change in Malta">Malta</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Climate change in the Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Mauritania" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Mauritius" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Mexico" title="Climate change in Mexico">Mexico</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Moldova" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Moldova">Moldova</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Mongolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Montenegro" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Morocco" title="Climate change in Morocco">Morocco</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Mozambique" title="Climate change in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Myanmar" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Namibia" title="Climate change in Namibia">Namibia</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Nepal" title="Climate change in Nepal">Nepal</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_the_Netherlands" title="Climate change in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_New_Zealand" title="Climate change in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Nicaragua" title="Climate change in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Niger" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Niger">Niger</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Nigeria" title="Climate change in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_North_Korea" title="Climate change in North Korea">North Korea</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_North_Macedonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Norway" title="Climate change in Norway">Norway</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Oman" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Oman">Oman</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Pakistan" title="Climate change in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Palau" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Palau">Palau</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Palestine" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Palestine">Palestine</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Panama" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Panama">Panama</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Climate change in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Paraguay" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Peru" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Peru">Peru</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_the_Philippines" title="Climate change in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Poland" title="Climate change in Poland">Poland</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Portugal" title="Climate change in Portugal">Portugal</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Romania" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Romania">Romania</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Russia" title="Climate change in Russia">Russia</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Rwanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Saint_Lucia" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Samoa" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Samoa">Samoa</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Climate change in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Senegal" title="Climate change in Senegal">Senegal</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Serbia" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Serbia">Serbia</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Seychelles" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Sierra_Leone" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Singapore" title="Climate change in Singapore">Singapore</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Slovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Slovenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Solomon_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Somalia" title="Climate change in Somalia">Somalia</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_South_Africa" title="Climate change in South Africa">South Africa</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_South_Korea" title="Climate change in South Korea">South Korea</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_South_Sudan" title="Climate change in South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Spain" title="Climate change in Spain">Spain</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Climate change in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Sudan" title="Climate change in Sudan">Sudan</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Suriname" title="Climate change in Suriname">Suriname</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Sweden" title="Climate change in Sweden">Sweden</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Switzerland" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Syria" title="Climate change in Syria">Syria</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Taiwan" title="Climate change in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Tajikistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Tanzania" title="Climate change in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Thailand" title="Climate change in Thailand">Thailand</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Togo" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Togo">Togo</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Tonga" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Tonga">Tonga</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Tunisia" title="Climate change in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Turkey" title="Climate change in Turkey">Turkey</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Turkmenistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Tuvalu" title="Climate change in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Uganda" title="Climate change in Uganda">Uganda</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Ukraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Climate change in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Climate change in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change in the United States">United States</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Uruguay" title="Climate change in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Uzbekistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Vanuatu" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Venezuela" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Vietnam" title="Climate change in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Western_Sahara" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Western Sahara">Western Sahara</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Zambia" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate change in Zambia">Zambia</a></li><li><a href="Climate_change_in_Zimbabwe" title="Climate change in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Sustainability771" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Sustainability771" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><a href="Outline_of_sustainability" title="Outline of sustainability">Outline</a></li>

<li><a href="Index_of_sustainability_articles" title="Index of sustainability articles">Index</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sustainability#Principles_and_concepts" title="Sustainability">Principles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Global_governance" title="Global governance">Global governance</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></li>

<li><a href="Planetary_boundaries" title="Planetary boundaries">Planetary boundaries</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">Development</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sustainable_consumption" title="Sustainable consumption">Consumption</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anthropization" title="Anthropization">Anthropization</a></li>

<li><a href="Anti-consumerism" title="Anti-consumerism">Anti-consumerism</a></li>

<li><a href="Circular_economy" title="Circular economy">Circular economy</a></li>

<li><a href="Durable_good" title="Durable good">Durable good</a></li>

<li><a href="Earth_Overshoot_Day" title="Earth Overshoot Day">Earth Overshoot Day</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethical_consumerism" title="Ethical consumerism">Ethical</a></li>

<li><a href="Green_consumption" title="Green consumption">Green consumption</a></li>

<li><a href="Micro-sustainability" title="Micro-sustainability">Micro-sustainability</a></li>

<li><a href="Over-consumption" class="mw-redirect" title="Over-consumption">Over-consumption</a></li>

<li><a href="Product_stewardship" title="Product stewardship">Product stewardship</a></li>

<li><a href="Simple_living" title="Simple living">Simple living</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_return_on_investment" title="Social return on investment">Social return on investment</a></li>

<li><a href="Steady-state_economy" title="Steady-state economy">Steady-state economy</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a>

<ul><li><a href="Sustainability_advertising" title="Sustainability advertising">Advertising</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainability_brand" title="Sustainability brand">Brand</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainability_marketing_myopia" title="Sustainability marketing myopia">Marketing myopia</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainable</a>

<ul><li><a href="Sustainable_consumer_behaviour" title="Sustainable consumer behaviour">Consumer behaviour</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_market" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable market">Market</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sustainability_and_systemic_change_resistance" title="Sustainability and systemic change resistance">Systemic change resistance</a></li>

<li><a href="Tragedy_of_the_commons" title="Tragedy of the commons">Tragedy of the commons</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="World_population" title="World population">World population</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Human_population_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Human population control">Control</a></li>

<li><a href="Demographic_transition" title="Demographic transition">Demographic transition</a></li>

<li><a href="Dependency_ratio" title="Dependency ratio">Dependency ratio</a>

<li><a href="Family_planning" title="Family planning">Family planning</a></li>

<li><a href="Intergenerational_equity" title="Intergenerational equity">Intergenerational equity</a></li>

<li><a href="Population_ageing" title="Population ageing">Population ageing</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_population" title="Sustainable population">Sustainable population</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Appropriate_technology" title="Appropriate technology">Appropriate</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_technology" title="Environmental technology">Environmental technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Natural_building" title="Natural building">Natural building</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_architecture" title="Sustainable architecture">Sustainable architecture</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_design" title="Sustainable design">Sustainable design</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_industries" title="Sustainable industries">Sustainable industries</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_packaging" title="Sustainable packaging">Sustainable packaging</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Biosecurity" title="Biosecurity">Biosecurity</a></li>

<li><a href="Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Endangered_species" title="Endangered species">Endangered species</a></li>

<li><a href="Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a></li>

<li><a href="Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a></li>

<li><a href="Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sustainable_food_system" title="Sustainable food system">Food</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Civic_agriculture" title="Civic agriculture">Civic agriculture</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate-smart_agriculture" title="Climate-smart agriculture">Climate-smart agriculture</a></li>

<li><a href="Community-supported_agriculture" title="Community-supported agriculture">Community-supported agriculture</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultured_meat" title="Cultured meat">Cultured meat</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_agriculture" title="Sustainable agriculture">Sustainable agriculture</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_diet" title="Sustainable diet">Sustainable diet</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_fishery" title="Sustainable fishery">Sustainable fishery</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Water</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Air_well_(condenser)" title="Air well (condenser)">Air well (condenser)</a></li>

<li><a href="Bioretention" title="Bioretention">Bioretention</a></li>

<li><a href="Bioswale" title="Bioswale">Bioswale</a></li>

<li><a href="Catchwater" title="Catchwater">Catchwater</a></li>

<li><a href="Constructed_wetland" title="Constructed wetland">Constructed wetland</a></li>

<li><a href="Detention_basin" title="Detention basin">Detention basin</a></li>

<li><a href="Water_footprint" title="Water footprint">Footprint</a></li>

<li><a href="Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">Hydroelectricity</a></li>

<li><a href="Hydropower" title="Hydropower">Hydropower</a></li>

<li><a href="Infiltration_basin" title="Infiltration basin">Infiltration basin</a></li>

<li><a href="Irrigation_tank" title="Irrigation tank">Irrigation tank</a></li>

<li><a href="Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">Marine energy</a></li>

<li><a href="Micro_hydro" title="Micro hydro">Micro hydro</a></li>

<li><a href="Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion" title="Ocean thermal energy conversion">Ocean thermal energy conversion</a></li>

<li><a href="Pico_hydro" title="Pico hydro">Pico hydro</a></li>

<li><a href="Rain_garden" title="Rain garden">Rain garden</a></li>

<li><a href="Rainwater_harvesting" title="Rainwater harvesting">Rainwater harvesting</a></li>

<li><a href="Rainwater_tank" title="Rainwater tank">Rainwater tank</a></li>

<li><a href="Reclaimed_water" title="Reclaimed water">Reclaimed water</a></li>

<li><a href="Retention_basin" title="Retention basin">Retention basin</a></li>

<li><a href="Run-of-the-river_hydroelectricity" title="Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity">Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity</a></li>

<li><a href="Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Scarcity</a></li>

<li><a href="Water_security" title="Water security">Security</a></li>

<li><a href="Small_hydro" title="Small hydro">Small hydro</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_drainage_system" title="Sustainable drainage system">Sustainable drainage system</a></li>

<li><a href="Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal power</a></li>

<li><a href="Tidal_stream_generator" title="Tidal stream generator">Tidal stream generator</a></li>

<li><a href="Tree_box_filter" title="Tree box filter">Tree box filter</a></li>

<li><a href="Water_conservation" title="Water conservation">Water conservation</a></li>

<li><a href="Water_heat_recycling" title="Water heat recycling">Water heat recycling</a></li>

<li><a href="Water_recycling_shower" title="Water recycling shower">Water recycling shower</a></li>

<li><a href="Water-sensitive_urban_design" title="Water-sensitive urban design">Water-sensitive urban design</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Accountability</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Corporate_environmental_responsibility" title="Corporate environmental responsibility">Corporate environmental responsibility</a></li>

<li><a href="Corporate_social_responsibility" title="Corporate social responsibility">Corporate social responsibility</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_accounting" title="Environmental accounting">Environmental accounting</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_full-cost_accounting" title="Environmental full-cost accounting">Environmental full-cost accounting</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_planning" title="Environmental planning">Environmental planning</a></li>

<li><a href="Generational_accounting" title="Generational accounting">Generational accounting</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a>

<ul><li><a href="Sustainability_accounting" title="Sustainability accounting">Accounting</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainability_measurement" title="Sustainability measurement">Measurement</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainability_metrics_and_indices" title="Sustainability metrics and indices">Metrics and indices</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainability_reporting" title="Sustainability reporting">Reporting</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainability_standards_and_certification" title="Sustainability standards and certification">Standards and certification</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_yield" title="Sustainable yield">Sustainable yield</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Economic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Debt_Sustainability_Analysis" title="Debt Sustainability Analysis">Debt Sustainability Analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Fiscal_sustainability" title="Fiscal sustainability">Fiscal sustainability</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Sustainable_advertising" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable advertising">Advertising</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_business" title="Sustainable business">Business</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultural_sustainability" title="Cultural sustainability">Cultural sustainability</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_finance" title="Climate finance">Climate finance</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_community" title="Sustainable community">Community</a></li>

<li><a href="Disinvestment" title="Disinvestment">Disinvestment</a></li>

<li><a href="Eco-capitalism" title="Eco-capitalism">Eco-capitalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Eco-cities" title="Eco-cities">Eco-cities</a></li>

<li><a href="Eco-investing" title="Eco-investing">Eco-investing</a></li>

<li><a href="Eco-socialism" title="Eco-socialism">Eco-socialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecovillage" title="Ecovillage">Ecovillage</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_finance" title="Environmental finance">Environmental finance</a></li>

<li><a href="Green_economy" title="Green economy">Green economy</a>

<ul><li><a href="Sustainability_in_construction" title="Sustainability in construction">Construction</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_fashion" title="Sustainable fashion">Fashion</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_finance" title="Sustainable finance">Finance</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_gardening" title="Sustainable gardening">Gardening</a></li>

<li><a href="Geopark" title="Geopark">Geopark</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmentally_friendly" title="Environmentally friendly">Green</a>

<ul><li><a href="Green_development" title="Green development">Development</a></li>

<li><a href="Green_infrastructure" title="Green infrastructure">Infrastructure</a></li>

<li><a href="Green_marketing" title="Green marketing">Marketing</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Green_roof" title="Green roof">Green roof</a></li>

<li><a href="Greening" title="Greening">Greening</a></li>

<li><a href="Impact_investing" title="Impact investing">Impact investing</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_landscape_architecture" title="Sustainable landscape architecture">Landscape</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_livelihood" title="Sustainable livelihood">Livelihood</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_living" title="Sustainable living">Living</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_market" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable market">Market</a></li>

<li><a href="Organic_movement" title="Organic movement">Organic movement</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainability_organizations" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainability organizations">Organizations</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_procurement" title="Sustainable procurement">Procurement</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_refurbishment" title="Sustainable refurbishment">Refurbishment</a></li>

<li><a href="Socially_responsible_business" title="Socially responsible business">Socially responsible business</a></li>

<li><a href="Socially_responsible_marketing" title="Socially responsible marketing">Socially responsible marketing</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_sanitation" title="Sustainable sanitation">Sanitation</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_sourcing" title="Sustainable sourcing">Sourcing</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_sustainability" title="Space sustainability">Space</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainability_organization" title="Sustainability organization">Sustainability organization</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_tourism" title="Sustainable tourism">Tourism</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_transport" title="Sustainable transport">Transport</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_urban_drainage_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable urban drainage systems">Urban drainage systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_urban_infrastructure" title="Sustainable urban infrastructure">Urban infrastructure</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sustainable_management" title="Sustainable management">Sustainable management</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Sustainability_and_environmental_management" title="Sustainability and environmental management">Environmental</a></li>

<li><a href="Fisheries_management" title="Fisheries management">Fisheries</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_forest_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable forest management">Forest</a></li>

<li><a href="Humanistic_capitalism" title="Humanistic capitalism">Humanistic capitalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Integrated_landscape_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrated landscape management">Landscape</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_materials_management" title="Sustainable materials management">Materials</a></li>

<li><a href="Natural_resource_management" title="Natural resource management">Natural resource</a></li>

<li><a href="Planetary_management" title="Planetary management">Planetary</a></li>

<li><a href="Recycling" title="Recycling">Recycling</a></li>

<li><a href="Waste_management" title="Waste management">Waste</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Agreements and conferences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="United_Nations_Conference_on_the_Human_Environment" title="United Nations Conference on the Human Environment">UN Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm 1972)</a></li>

<li><a href="Brundtland_Commission" title="Brundtland Commission">Brundtlandt Commission Report (1983)</a></li>

<li><a href="Our_Common_Future" title="Our Common Future">Our Common Future (1987)</a></li>

<li><a href="Earth_Summit" title="Earth Summit">Earth Summit (1992)</a></li>

<li><a href="Rio_Declaration_on_Environment_and_Development" title="Rio Declaration on Environment and Development">Rio Declaration on Environment and Development</a> (1992)</li>

<li><a href="Agenda_21" title="Agenda 21">Agenda 21 (1992)</a></li>

<li><a href="Convention_on_Biological_Diversity" title="Convention on Biological Diversity">Convention on Biological Diversity (1992)</a></li>

<li><a href="Lisbon_Principles" title="Lisbon Principles">Lisbon Principles</a> (1997)</li>

<li><a href="Earth_Charter" title="Earth Charter">Earth Charter</a> (2000)</li>

<li><a href="United_Nations_Millennium_Declaration" title="United Nations Millennium Declaration">UN Millennium Declaration (2000)</a></li>

<li><a href="Earth_Summit_2002" title="Earth Summit 2002">Earth Summit 2002</a> (Rio+10, Johannesburg)</li>

<li><a href="United_Nations_Conference_on_Sustainable_Development" title="United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development">UN Conference on Sustainable Development</a> (Rio+20, 2012)</li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_Development_Goals" title="Sustainable Development Goals">Sustainable Development Goals</a> (2015)</li>

<li><a href="World_Conference_on_Cultural_Policies_and_Sustainable_Development" title="World Conference on Cultural Policies and Sustainable Development">UNESCO MONDIACULT conferences</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> Category</li>

<li> Lists</li>

<li><a href="Sustainability_science" title="Sustainability science">Science</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainability_studies" title="Sustainability studies">Studies</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_environmental_degrees" title="List of environmental degrees">Degrees</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Population682" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Population682" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Population" title="Population">Population</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Demographics_of_the_world" title="Demographics of the world">Demographics of the world</a></li>

<li><a href="Demographic_transition" title="Demographic transition">Demographic transition</a></li>

<li><a href="Estimates_of_historical_world_population" title="Estimates of historical world population">Estimates of historical world population</a></li>

<li><a href="Population_growth" title="Population growth">Population growth</a></li>

<li><a href="Population_momentum" title="Population momentum">Population momentum</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_population_projections" title="Human population projections">Human population projections</a></li>

<li><a href="World_population" title="World population">World population</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="Population_biology" title="Population biology">Population biology</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Population_decline" title="Population decline">Population decline</a></li>

<li><a href="Population_density" title="Population density">Population density</a>

<ul><li><a href="Physiological_density" title="Physiological density">Physiological density</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a></li>

<li><a href="Population_model" title="Population model">Population model</a></li>

<li><a href="Population_pyramid" title="Population pyramid">Population pyramid</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="Population_ecology" title="Population ecology">Population ecology</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Biocapacity" title="Biocapacity">Biocapacity</a></li>

<li><a href="Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">Carrying capacity</a></li>

<li><a href="Kaya_identity" title="Kaya identity">Kaya identity</a></li>

<li><a href="Malthusian_growth_model" title="Malthusian growth model">Malthusian growth model</a></li>

<li><a href="Overshoot_(population)" title="Overshoot (population)">Overshoot (population)</a></li>

<li><a href="World3" title="World3">World3 model</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society and population</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li>

<li><a href="Dysgenics" title="Dysgenics">Dysgenics</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_overpopulation" title="Human overpopulation">Human overpopulation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Malthusianism" title="Malthusianism">Malthusian catastrophe</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Human_population_planning" title="Human population planning">Human population planning</a>

<ul><li><a href="Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li>

<li><a href="Dependency_ratio" title="Dependency ratio">Dependency ratio</a></li>

<li><a href="Family_planning" title="Family planning">Family planning</a></li>

<li><a href="One-child_policy" title="One-child policy">One-child policy</a></li>

<li><a href="Two-child_policy" title="Two-child policy">Two-child policy</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Overconsumption_(economics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Overconsumption (economics)">Overconsumption</a></li>

<li><a href="Political_demography" title="Political demography">Political demography</a></li>

<li><a href="Population_ethics" title="Population ethics">Population ethics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Antinatalism" title="Antinatalism">Antinatalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Intergenerational_equity" title="Intergenerational equity">Intergenerational equity</a></li>

<li><a href="Mere_addition_paradox" title="Mere addition paradox">Mere addition paradox</a></li>

<li><a href="Natalism" title="Natalism">Natalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Non-identity_problem" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-identity problem">Non-identity problem</a></li>

<li><a href="Reproductive_rights" title="Reproductive rights">Reproductive rights</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_population" title="Sustainable population">Sustainable population</a></li>

<li><a href="Zero_population_growth" title="Zero population growth">Zero population growth</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Publications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Population_and_Environment" title="Population and Environment">Population and Environment</a></li>

<li><a href="Population_and_Development_Review" title="Population and Development Review">Population and Development Review</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Population_and_housing_censuses_by_country" title="Population and housing censuses by country">Population and housing censuses by country</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_dependency_ratio" title="List of countries by dependency ratio">Dependency ratio</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_largest_cities" title="List of largest cities">Largest cities</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_countries_by_number_of_births" title="List of countries by number of births">Number of births</a></li>

<li><a href="World_population_milestones" title="World population milestones">World population milestones</a>

<ul><li><a href="Day_of_Six_Billion" title="Day of Six Billion">6 billion</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_population_concern_organizations" title="List of population concern organizations">Population concern organizations</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Events and organizations</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="7_Billion_Actions" title="7 Billion Actions">7 Billion Actions</a></li>

<li><a href="Church_of_Euthanasia" title="Church of Euthanasia">Church of Euthanasia</a></li>

<li><a href="International_Conference_on_Population_and_Development" title="International Conference on Population and Development">International Conference on Population and Development</a></li>

<li><a href="Population_Action_International" title="Population Action International">Population Action International</a></li>

<li><a href="Population_Connection" title="Population Connection">Population Connection</a></li>

<li><a href="Population_Matters" title="Population Matters">Population Matters</a></li>

<li><a href="United_Nations_Population_Fund" title="United Nations Population Fund">United Nations Population Fund</a></li>

<li><a href="United_Nations_world_population_conferences" title="United Nations world population conferences">United Nations world population conferences</a></li>

<li><a href="Voluntary_Human_Extinction_Movement" title="Voluntary Human Extinction Movement">Voluntary Human Extinction Movement</a></li>

<li><a href="World_Population_Conference" title="World Population Conference">World Population Conference</a></li>

<li><a href="World_Population_Day" title="World Population Day">World Population Day</a></li>

<li><a href="World_Population_Foundation" title="World Population Foundation">World Population Foundation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bennett's_law" title="Bennett's law">Bennett's law</a></li>

<li><a href="Green_Revolution" title="Green Revolution">Green Revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_migration" title="Human migration">Migration</a>

<ul><li><a href="Net_migration_rate" title="Net migration rate">Net migration rate</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Human_populations" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Human populations">Commons</a></li>

<li> Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q898653#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1452" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q898653#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1452" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/7547705-1">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh2006006266">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph502995&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007532701705171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/3e2f568a-3e51-40be-9a5c-22e8aa2bee1a">Yale LUX</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-07-11" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Climate_change_mitigation&oldid=1300031502">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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